Proverbs

Every society needs wisdom in order to live in the world. The Book of Proverbs is ancient Israel’s wisdom for living life God’s way in God’s world. The book focuses primarily on the moral and spiritual development of youth and can be viewed as a comprehensive parental manual for imparting God’s wisdom to the young.

The book of Proverbs is made up of seven smaller collections that are delineated using headings that identify the author. All the headings are written in prose, while the proverbs and sayings are written in poetry. Although no explicit heading occurs in Collection III (22:17–24:22), its preamble and form indicate that it is a distinct collection. The collections are as follows:

Collection I – 1:1–9:18

Collection II – 10:1–22:16

Collection III – 22:17–24:22

Collection IV – 24:23–3

Collection V – 25:1–29:27

Collection VI – 30:1–33

Collection VII – 31:1–31

Collection I (1:1–9:18) is titled “The Proverbs of Solomon Son of David, King of Israel” (1:1). Its teachings are distinct from the other collections by reason of their form. Whereas the others consist primarily of short, pithy statements or longer sayings, Collection I consists of twelve extended addresses that laud wisdom and exhort the disciple to accept and internalize it. Ten of the addresses are from the parents to their son, and implicitly include the daughter,¹ and two are from “Woman Wisdom,” a personification of the Book of Proverbs.

Collection II (10:1–22:16) is headed “The proverbs of Solomon” (10:1a) and consists of 375 proverbs made up of short, pithy statements.

Collection III (22:17–24:22) does not have a heading but has a preamble (22:17–21) that mentions “thirty sayings” (22:20). Scholars refer to this section as “The Thirty Sayings of the Wise.” Several of the sayings in this collection resemble the thirty sayings of the Egyptian wisdom source known as the Instruction of Amenemope (ca. 1186–1069). It is probable that Solomon borrowed some sayings from this source and adapted them for use in Israel.

Collection IV (24:23–34) is headed “These also are sayings of the wise” and contains six more sayings. Like the Thirty Sayings of the previous collection, these too would have been adopted, adapted, and added by Solomon.

Collection V (25:1–20:27) is headed “These also are proverbs of Solomon which the men of Hezekiah king of Judah (715–686 BC) copied.” The proverbs in this section resemble those of Collection II.

Collection VI (30:1–33) is demarcated by the heading “The words of Agur son of Jakeh. The oracle.” Agur was a non-Israelite sage who nevertheless fully absorbed the faith of YHWH. His oracles consist mainly of numerical sayings.

Collection VII (31:1–31) is titled “The words of King Lemuel. An oracle that his mother taught him.” Like Agur, King Lemuel is a non-Israelite monarch whose wisdom demonstrates that he has fully converted to the faith of Israel. His wisdom preserves what his godly mother taught him on the subjects of the noble king and the valiant wife.

Proverbs names four authors/collectors: Solomon (Collection I–IV), the Men of Hezekiah (Collection V), Agur (Collection VI), and Lemuel (Collection VII). While the named authors are responsible for the collections of the book, the arrangement of the book and the addition of the headings are the work of a Final Editor who gave the book its present form in the Masoretic Text (MT). This person is anonymous but probably undertook his work during the Persian period (540–322 BC). He may also be responsible for adding the Title and Preamble (1:1–7).

Apart from the prose superscriptions (1:1; 10:1a; 24:23a; 25:1; 30:1; 31:1), all the verses of the Book of Proverbs are composed in poetical form. For a discussion of Hebrew poetry, readers are directed to the TGC article “Introduction to Hebrew Poetry” by Desmond Alexander.

The Book of Proverbs views divine wisdom as a totalizing concept that God begat before anything existed, and now reveals through his inspired sages, so that humankind may experience the abundant life God intended. Wisdom is the skill needed to navigate life in a dangerous world filled with hidden traps. Divine wisdom is inseparable from righteousness; in other words, it is inseparable from serving others, not self. This wisdom is counter-intuitive to fallen humanity. One gains this eternal wisdom by the fear of the LORD—that is to say, by accepting by faith God’s revelation in Proverbs, and trusting that God upholds its truth. Attaining divine wisdom is a matter of eternal life and death.

The primary purpose of the Book of Proverbs is to educate youth in Israel’s wisdom so that their innate folly is driven out and they are transformed into godly, wise, and righteous characters who fear God, serve others, and attain maximum benefit for themselves. The book covers nearly every topic that can make or destroy a youth—money, sex, speech, marriage, parenthood, work, leadership, godliness, and wisdom, to name a few. Although the primary target audience is the youth, the book offers its wisdom to the already wise who desire to continue growing in wisdom (1:5). Studying the Book of Proverbs is essential for all Christians who wish to please God and live securely in an increasingly complex and carnal world.

“The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge;

fools despise wisdom and instruction.”

— Proverbs 1:7 ESV

“Be wise, my son, and make my heart glad,

that I may answer him who reproaches me.”

— Proverbs 27:11 ESV

I. Introduction (1:1–7)

A. Title (1:1)

B. Preamble (1:2–7)

II. Collection I: The Prologue (1:8–9:18)

A. Lecture 1: Stay Away from Gangs (1:8–19)

B. Wisdom’s first Call to the Uncommitted (1:20–33)

C. Lecture 2: The Benefits of Wisdom (2:1–22)

D. Lecture 3: The Admonitions and Promises of Obedience (3:1–12)

E. Lecture 4: The Blessings of Wisdom (3:13–35)

F. Lecture 5: Acquiring the Heritage of Wisdom (4:1–9)

G. Lecture 6: The Two Ways (4:10–19)

H. Lecture 7: Do Not Deviate from the Straight Path (4:20–27)

I. Lecture 8: On the Absurdity of Adultery and the Wisdom of Marriage (5:1–23)

J. Appendix: Three More Follies to Avoid (6:1–19)

K. Lecture 9: The High Cost of Adultery (6:20–35)

L. Lecture 10: Beware the Seductive Tactics of the Adulteress (7:1–27)

M. Wisdom’s Second Call to the Uncommitted (8:1–36)

N. Epilogue (9:1–18)

III. Collection II: The Proverbs of Solomon (10:1–22:16)

A. The Importance of Wise Children to the Family’s Wellbeing (10:1–5)

B. The Importance of Speech (10:6–14)

C. The Wicked and the Righteous in Relation to Wealth (10:15–16)

D. The Effects of Speech on Others (10:17–21)

E. The Security and Destiny of the Righteous contrasted with Those of the Wicked (10:22–30)

F. The Destinies of Righteous and Wicked Speakers (10:31–32)

G. Honesty in Business and in Character (11:1–2)

H. The Destinies of the Righteous and the Wicked (11:3–8)

I. The Powerful Effect of Good and Bad Speech on Neighbor and Community (11:9–15)

J. The Rewards for Being Righteous or Wicked (11:16–22)

K. Generosity and Miserliness (11:23–27)

L. The Certainty of Reward and Punishment (11:28–30)

M. On Words and Actions (12:1–28)

N. Speech and Character (13:2–6)

O. Wise Wealth (13:7–11)

P. Wisdom’s Attributes and their Rewards (13:12–19)

Q. Righteousness and Its Rewards (13:20–25)

R. Living in Wisdom, Not Folly (14:1–33)

S. The Effects of Wise and Foolish Speech (15:1–4)

T. On Accepting or Rejecting Instruction (15:5–12)

U. The Triumphant Heart (15:13–19)

V. The Joy of Education in Wisdom (15:20–24)

W. The LORD’s Response to the Righteous and the Wicked (15:25–29)

X. Listening to Character-Forming Instruction (15:30–33)

Y. Divine Sovereignty and Human Responsibility (16:1–9)

Z. God’s Justice Exercised through the King (16:10–15)

AA. Wisdom’s Profits (16:16–19)

BB. Effective Speech (16:20–24)

CC. Foolish Behaviors (16:25–30)

DD. The Glorious Crown of Old Age and the Character That Bestows It (16:31–17:6)

EE. Three Depraved Types (17:7–9)

FF. Fools and Other Dangers to Avoid (17:10–16)

GG. Friendship and Its Limits (17:17–20)

HH. The Pain Fools Cause Their Parents (17:21–26)

II. The Speech of the Wise and the Speech of Fools (17:27–18:8)

JJ. The Sources of True and False Security (18:9–12)

KK. The Fool and the Wise Contrasted (18:13–15)

LL. Behavior in Matters of Justice and the Courts (18:16–19)

MM. The Power of Speech (18:20–21)

NN. The Danger of Wealth and Poverty (18:22–19:8)

OO. Wisdom in the Palace and in the Home (19:9–15)

PP. On Showing Compassion to the Needy (19:16–23)

QQ. Fools and How to Treat Them (19:24–20:4)

RR. The Need for Discernment in Dealing with People (20:5–8)

SS. Human Depravity, Justice, and Grace (20:9–11)

TT. Discernment and Speech (20:12–19)

UU. On Honoring Authority (20:20–28)

VV. On Educating the Youth (20:29–30)

WW. God Blesses the Righteous and Punishes the Wickedness (21:1–31)

XX. On Wealth and Speech (22:1–16)

IV. Collection III: The Thirty Sayings of the Wise (22:17–24:22)

A. Saying 1 (22:17–21)

B. Sayings 2–11 (22:22–23:11)

C. Sayings 12–18 (23:12–28)

D. Sayings 19 and 20 (23:29–24:2)

E. Sayings 21 to 25 (24:3–24:12)

F. Sayings 26 to 30 (24:13–24:22)

V. Collection IV: The Further Sayings of the Wise (24:23–34)

VI. Collection V: The Proverbs of Solomon Compiled by Hezekiah’s Men (25:1–29:27)

A. Wise Behavior in the Court (25:2–15)

B. A Catalogue of Human Conflicts to Avoid (25:16–27)

C. Seven Types of Wicked People (25:28–26:28)

D. Wisdom in Friendship (27:1–22)

E. On Managing Resources Wisely (27:23–27)

F. The Importance of Instruction to Being a Discerning Person (28:1–12)

G. The Contrasting Characteristics of the Righteous and the Wicked, Especially in Relation to Acquiring Wealth (28:13–28)

H. The Destruction of the Incorrigible (29:1)

I. The Importance of Wise Rearing and Ruling for Dealing with the Wicked (29:2–15)

J. On the Importance of Discipline and Trusting in the LORD (29:16–27)

VII. Collection VI: The Sayings of Agur, Son of Jakeh (30:1–33)

A. Introduction: How Agur Attained Wisdom (30:1–9)

B. Body: Agur’s Seven Numerical Sayings (10–31)

C. Conclusion: Agur’s Wise Advice to Disciples (30:32–33)

VIII. Collection VII: The Sayings of Lemuel (31:1–31)

A. Superscription (30:1)

B. The Noble King (31:2–9)

C. The Valiant Wife (31:10–31)

The Introduction consists of Title (v. 1) and Preamble (vv. 2–7).

The title, “The proverbs of Solomon, Son of David,” names the primary author (cf. 10:1; 25:1) and states the genre of the book. Solomon reigned from 966–926 BC, and in his early reign was considered the wisest man alive (see 1Kgs 4:29–34; 10:23–24; Matt 6:29; 12:42; Acts 7:47; cf. 1Kgs 11:1–13). According to 1 Kings 4:32, Solomon is said to have authored some 3,000 proverbs, making him a credible agent for authoring and/or collecting most of the proverbs and sayings in the book. The title does not name the recipient of the book, typically the sage’s son or disciple.² This suggests that Solomon made the book available for all Israel based on Israel’s anthropology that all humans were created in the image of God (Gen 1:26) and the whole nation was a “kingdom of priests” (Exod 19:6). “Proverbs” (mišlê, plural of māšāl) refers to an observation, insight, or admonition that is expressed in a short, pithy sentence. The root idea of its verbal form probably means “to compare.” If so, then readers are expected to compare their lives/circumstances with the situation expressed by the proverb and to make the necessary changes to conform to its truth. Proverbs make up the bulk of the book (10:1–22:16 and 25:1–29:27), while longer sayings make up the rest (1:8–9:18; 22:17–24:22; 24:23–34; 30:1–33; 31:1–31).

The preamble identifies the purpose and addressees (vv. 2–6) and explains how the book is to be spiritually appropriated (v. 7). Each verse, excluding v. 5, begins with a purpose clause (“to”). Uniquely, however, each verset of v. 2 begins with a purpose clause, suggesting it is the summary statement of the purpose. In that case, v. 2a summarizes the ethical purpose of the book, namely, to know the substance of wisdom, which is then further explicated in vv. 3–5; and v. 2b summarizes its intellectual purpose, namely, to understand the expression of wisdom, which is further expanded in v. 6. Five purpose clauses describe the purpose.

Verse 2a. “To know” (better, “to experience”) the substance of “wisdom” (ḥokmâ, i.e., the skill to live life in a danger-filled world) and “instruction” (mûsār). Mûsar refers to teaching that shapes character. It consists primarily of verbal exhortation and warning but includes physical discipline if necessary.

Verse 2b. “To understand (i.e., to intellectually comprehend) words of insight” refers to deciphering the expression of wisdom. Wisdom comes in many forms (v. 6). These can be difficult and require intellectual rigor to unpack the wisdom enshrined in them.

Verse 3. “To receive instruction” focuses on the disciple, urging him to accept willingly the book’s corrective teachings. If he does, he will acquire the skill of “wise dealing” (ESV) or “prudent behavior” (NIV). “Prudence” is the ability to perceive the best practices that enhance life. Since wisdom and prudence are neutral skills that can be applied for good or evil, the instruction the youth receives is qualified as that which will transform him into one who does “righteousness [ṣeḏeq], justice [mišpāṭ], and equity [mêšārîm].” To do righteousness means to do what is right and required by the covenant in spite of personal cost. A just person is one who treats others in a fair and unbiased manner. “Equity” (better, “uprightness”) describes the person who lives according to God’s ethical standards. In sum, acquiring wisdom is not an end in itself, but the means to the greater end of acquiring a righteous character.

Verse 4. “To give” focuses on the parent-teacher to impart “to the uncommitted” (pǝtāyîm; i.e., those on the cusp of adulthood who have not yet committed themselves to the way of wisdom), “shrewdness” (i.e., skill to devise clever plans to achieve one’s goals), “knowledge” (i.e., know-how), and “discretion” (ability to make plans in secret). “Youth” is a term further describing the “uncommitted.” Like wisdom, these are morally neutral skills, but Proverbs envisions that they will be exercised only to achieve the common good as described in v. 3.

Verse 5 interrupts the series of purpose clauses to address a new audience, namely, the “wise” and “insightful” (nāḇôn; i.e., those with the ability to penetrate beyond outward appearances). They are exhorted to “hear”³ (i.e., to listen and to obey) again the wisdom⁴ and so “add” to their “learning” (here a near synonym for wisdom), and “gain” (i.e., increase) in “guidance” (i.e., the skill to navigate a straight course in life). Since each new hearing of the book increases one’s wisdom, even the already wise benefit from repeated attention to it. The purpose of Proverbs is not merely to educate youth but also to advance the wisdom of the already wise.

Verse 6. “To understand” repeats the infinitive of v. 2b, forming an inclusio, and indicating that v. 6 expands what understanding “words of insight” entails. The verse explains that wisdom comes in various forms, such as “proverb, parable, sayings of the wise” (see 22:17; 24:23), and “riddles”⁵ that must be carefully studied in order to comprehend them. The more the book is studied, the more one develops the skill to interpret it.

Verse 7 states the spiritual condition required for attaining the book’s purposes. “The fear of the LORD” is a collocation that signifies, among others, to dread (Exod 20:20; cf. Prov 24:21), to be in awe of (Exod 14:31), to honor (Ps 130:4; Mal 1:6), to obey (Gen 22:12) the LORD, and to reject evil (3:7; 8:13; 14:16; Job 1:1; 28:28). This psycho-spiritual attitude of the heart is the prime requirement for beginning, and continuing to gain, the wisdom of Proverbs. At the opposite extreme to the wise who fear God are the “fools” (ʾĕwîlîm) who despise (i.e., show utter contempt for) the divine gift of wisdom and so reject it root and branch.

In sum, the preamble exhorts unformed youth to accept, parents-teachers to instruct, and the already wise to study again the substance and expression of wisdom so that they penetrate its inner meaning and become persons who are righteous, just, and fair.

Many dangers face young persons as they move out of the home. The prologue consists of lessons and exhortations that warn the youth of these dangers and exhort them to follow the path of wisdom, which if they do, will please God (11:20), protect them from danger (19:23), and lead them on a straight path (3:6) that grows ever brighter (4:18).

Structurally, the prologue consists of ten lessons by the father to the son (1:8–19; 2:1–22; 3:1–12, 13–35; 4:1–9, 10–19, 20–27; 5:1–23; 6:20–35; 7:1–27), two calls by Lady Wisdom to the uncommitted (1:20–33; 8:1–36), an appendix describing folly in practical terms (6:1–19), and an epilogue in which Lady Wisdom and her rival, Lady Folly, invite the youth to dine at their respective tables. In all, the prologue consists of fourteen sections.

One of the first problems a youth encounters is the lack of money to obtain legally all the delights of the material world. Some teens choose to solve the problem through crime, and one of the best ways to commit crime is with the help of a gang. In the first lecture, the wise father warns his son to resist the gang’s invitation to join it in a life of crime. He gives his warning through a form of role-playing in which he assumes the posture of the gang and graphically mimics its recruiting tactics (vv. 11–14). He then switches back to the role of the father and tells his son why he must resist (vv. 15–18).

Structurally, the lecture consists of the introduction (vv. 8–9), main lesson (vv. 10–19), and conclusion (v. 19).

Introduction (1:8–9)

The lessons in Proverbs typically begin with an introduction that admonishes and motivates the son to listen. In this lesson, the son is admonished to “hear” (see 1:5) the wise teaching of his father and “not let go” of (a litotes meaning to strongly adhere to) the “teaching” (torah) of his “mother.” The mother is placed on an equal footing with the father as a wisdom-teacher to her son (cf. 6:20; 23:22–25). The reward if the son obeys is described using the metaphors of “garland” and “necklace,” which were adornments that set the wearer apart in a crowd. The metaphors probably signify the rewards wisdom will bestow, namely, life, power, victory, social prestige, favor, and high honor in society (cf. 3:3, 22; 4:9; 6:21).⁶

Main Lesson (1:10–19)

Following another introductory admonition (“If . . . then”) which exhorts the son to categorically reject the gangsters’ enticements (v. 10), the lesson is equally divided into two strophes of four verses each. In the first strophe, the father creates the hypothetical condition (“if . . .”) of a gang approaching the son and enticing him to join it (vv. 11–14); in the second, he states the reasons for rejecting it (vv. 15–18).

Assuming a gangster-like persona in vv. 11–14, the father tells his son that the sinners (i.e., habitual, not occasional, transgressors) will approach him with promises to fulfill his desires for companionship (“come along with us,” “cast lots with us”) and material prosperity (“precious goods,” “plunder”). However, the price will involve loyalty to the gang and participating in killing the innocent to obtain their possessions. In depicting the gang’s nature and actions, the father uses words associated with predatory animals (“lie in wait,” “ambush”), marauders (“we shall find all precious goods . . . fill our houses with plunder”), and death (“like the grave,” “like . . . the pit”). The father’s speech is a literary fiction that works brilliantly both to expose the gang’s hideous acts and to condemn those acts by their own words (cf. Ps 10:8–9).

In vv. 15–18, the father resumes his role as parent and tells his son, in effect, not even to think about joining the “way” (i.e., the lifestyle) of the sinners (v. 15). The reason is that the outcome of such a lifestyle is death (cf. 16:29). Verse 16 states that blood will be shed but does not specify whose blood is shed. Isaiah 59:7 has the same sentence but adds the qualifier “innocent” to clarify that it is referring to the shedding of innocent blood. By omitting the qualifier, the father creates a double entendre to demonstrate that plots to kill the innocent (v. 11) come back to kill the plotters, a fact easily confirmed in modern gang conflicts. Today’s anti-gang slogan “Joining a gang will suck the life out of you” captures the father’s warning, which is plainly stated in v. 18 (cf. Ps 35:8). The illustration used in v. 17 is probably also a double entendre. Birds that see a trap being set have enough sense to avoid it because they understand the deed-destiny nexus, namely, that walking into the trap will end their lives. Similarly, the youth should have enough sense to see that a life of crime is a deadly trap. Or the meaning could be that while even not-so-intelligent birds see the trap and avoid it, criminals are even stupider because they walk open-eyed into it.

The father concludes the lesson with the affirmation that illicitly gained wealth leads to self-destruction (v. 19). “It (i.e., illicitly gained wealth) takes away the life” portrays wealth as a grim reaper. Criminals may possess their illicit treasure for a while, but eventually it dispossesses them of their lives. Proverbs does not specify when and how justice will be meted out to the sinners, but it affirms that justice is from God (5:21–23; 16:5), and, although it may be delayed and/or mediated through human hands, it is inescapable.

Lady Wisdom, a personification of the book of Proverbs,⁷ urges the uncommitted to accept the way of wisdom and save themselves from destruction before it is too late. Her message forewarns what will happen to them if they reject her.

Structurally, her sermon consists of fourteen verses arranged in seven couplets. The first couplet establishes Wisdom’s location and locution (vv. 20–21). The next three state her message:

vv. 22–23 Wisdom Calls the Uncommitted to Repent

vv. 24–25 The Uncommitted Reject the Call

vv. 26–27 Wisdom Rejects the Uncommitted

In the final three couplets, Wisdom reflects on her message:

vv. 28–29 The Certainty of Judgment

vv. 30–31 The Finality of Judgment

vv. 32–33 Conclusion: On the Fate of Fools and the Wise

Wisdom’s Location and Locution (1:20–21)

Four nouns describe Wisdom’s location, and four verbs her locution. All four locations are outside the home: “street . . . public squares . . . highest walls⁸ . . . city gate.” The father instructs his son in the home; Wisdom calls to the youth outside the home. In this way, God’s call to youth is made omnipresent. Whether in the home or outside it, youth have the opportunity to hear and to heed the call. The uncommitted presumably rejected the wisdom their parents taught them while still at home. Now, unprotected by wisdom, they are out in public where myriad dangers lurk. Wisdom offers them another opportunity to embrace her. The four verbs describe Wisdom’s locution as loud and urgent: “cries aloud . . . raises her voice . . . cries out . . . speaks.” Time is short, and the opportunity to choose wisdom is fleeting.

Wisdom’s Message (1:22–27)

“How long” implies Wisdom⁹ has been calling for some time. The “uncommitted” (see 1:4), however, “love” (i.e., passionately desire) the lifestyle of openness to everything and commitment to nothing. While Wisdom calls only the uncommitted, who are still redeemable, she groups them with the irredeemable “scoffers” (lēṣîm, pl. from lēṣ sing.; see comments on 9:7–12) and “fools” (see 1:7) because, in their obstinacy, the uncommitted are in danger of entering the ranks of the irredeemable. If, however, the uncommitted repent and heed her “rebuke” (i.e., her lesson), she will pour out her thoughts (lit. “my spirit”) to them.

In verses 24–25 Wisdom warns the youth about refusing her. She speaks as if their rejection is a fait accompli, probably to shock the wayward youth into realizing their predicament and their need for her “counsel,” which entails resources, skills, and insight to evade disaster. Without Wisdom’s counsel, they will have no idea of how to escape and will perish.

Verses 26–27 describe Wisdom’s judgment upon the unrepentant youth. She will laugh and scoff when their deserved dreadful disaster comes. Wisdom uses storm imagery and similes to describe the unexpected and terrifying nature of the looming disaster. Wisdom’s laugh, however, is not malicious, which is forbidden in 24:17; it is the laugh of triumph at the prevailing of justice. In Psalm 2:4 God laughs in derision at the wicked who imagine they can overthrow his kingdom (see also Pss 37:13; 59:9), and the righteous rejoice at God’s triumph over the wicked because evil is judged and the innocent vindicated (Pss 52:6; 58:10; Rev 18:20; cf. Prov 28:28).

Wisdom’s Reflections on Her Message (1:28–31)

A shift in pronouns from “you” (vv. 22–27) to “they” (vv. 28–31) indicates that Wisdom turns from directly addressing the uncommitted to addressing the book’s audience about them. In v. 29 she states that the reason why the uncommitted rejected her was that they despised “knowledge” (a correlative of wisdom) and spurned its foundation, “the fear of the LORD” (v. 29; cf. 1:7). This verse draws a close connection between wisdom and relationship with God. To reject one is to forfeit the other. Their condemnation, therefore, is certain (vv. 28–29) and final (vv. 30–31). In a devastating quid pro quo, she announces that just as they rejected her call (v. 24), so will she reject them when they call (v. 28). The door to salvation does not stay open forever. At the time of judgment, the foolish youth will “eat the fruit of their way” (i.e., suffer the consequences of their folly).

Conclusion: On the Fate of Fools and the Wise (1:32–33)

Wisdom concludes her philippic by contrasting the destinies of fools and the wise. The uncommitted who rebuffed wisdom, and so joined the ranks of irredeemable fools, will die the death of fools, while the wise who heeded Wisdom will “live” forever because they are physically “secure” and psychologically “at ease.” In sum, Wisdom’s message is simple: repent or perish.

Following Wisdom’s reflections on the deadly results of rejecting her, the father extolls the profound benefits of accepting wisdom. If the son internalizes wisdom, he will attain the knowledge of God and a righteous character, which in turn will safeguard him against danger and usher him into eternal life.

The lesson can be divided into two symmetrical halves. Logically, the first half (vv. 1–11) teaches the son how to develop a godly character, and the second half (vv. 12–22) explains the benefits of such a character, namely, protection from dangerous men and women who archetypically represent the temptations of easy money and easy sex. Syntactically, the whole lesson in Hebrew is one complex sentence of twenty-two verses that correspond to the number of letters in the Hebrew alphabet and can be divided equally into two stanzas of eleven verses each. The eleven verses of each stanza can be further divided into two strophes of four verses each with a climactic third strophe of three verses:

	Stanza 1 Development of a Godly Character (2:1–11)	Stanza 2 Protections of a Godly Character (2:12–20)
Strophe 1	1–4: “if . . .”	12–15: “to deliver you from . . . the evil man”
Strophe 2	5–8: “then . . .”	16–19: “to deliver you from . . . the adulterous woman”
Strophe 3	9–11: “then . . .”	20–22: “and so you will . . . inhabit the land”

 

In stanza 1 (vv. 1–11), the first strophe states three conditions for the son to fulfill: “if . . .” (vv. 1, 3, 4), while the last two strophes state the consequences of meeting the conditions: “then . . .” (vv. 5, 9). In stanza 2, the first two strophes state two archetypal dangers against which the son’s godly character will protect him, namely, evil men (vv. 12–15) and the adulterous woman (vv. 16–19). The final strophe concludes the lesson by stating that the wise will live forever in a wicked-free land (vv. 20–22). The lesson is a partial acrostic.¹⁰ After the introductory address “My son,” each strophe of the first stanza begins with aleph, the first letter of the Hebrew alphabet (vv. 1, 5, 9), while each strophe of the second stanza begins with lamed, the first letter of the second half of the alphabet (vv. 12, 16, 20).

Stanza 1 (2:1–11)

The Conditions for Attaining Wisdom (2:1–4)

The first condition urges the disciple to internalize wisdom by paying attention to the father’s lessons (vv. 1–2). The father’s “words” are identified with wisdom in verse 2; verse 6 declares that wisdom is from God, thereby establishing that the father’s words are from God. The use of “commandments” establishes the father’s words as authoritatively on a par with the commands of Moses. The condition exhorts the son to be like Solomon’s temple, which housed the LORD’s words in its sanctum sanctorum. Similarly, the son is to house the father’s wisdom in his “heart” (see 4:23–27).¹¹ The second (v. 3) and third (v. 4) conditions require more aggressive actions. Unlike the uncommitted who rebuffed Wisdom’s call, the son must “call out . . . cry aloud” for wisdom. The inestimable value of wisdom, and the effort required to attain it, are emphasized by imagery of hunting for hidden treasure (v. 4). Attaining wisdom is not easy, but it is essential.

The First Consequence: Theological Knowledge and the Protection of God (2:5–8)

The first consequence is spiritual. If the son diligently seeks wisdom, “then” he will “understand (i.e., grasp at a deep level) the fear of the LORD” (see 1:7). The fear of the LORD is the ultimate hidden treasure that the search for wisdom yields. The fear of the LORD is both the beginning and the culmination of the search for wisdom. “Find the knowledge of God” means to enter into personal, covenant relationship with the Sovereign of the Universe who is otherwise unknowable. Knowledge of God probably refers both to knowing God relationally and to receiving knowledge/insight from him. “For” explains how wisdom (i.e., the wisdom revealed in the contents of the book) bestows the knowledge of God: it is given by God, who is its source and revealer. The result of attaining this “sound wisdom” (tûšiyyâ, “practical ability”¹²) is divine protection. God “guards . . . and protects” the way of “his saints” (i.e., the loyal members of his covenant), so that they arrive safely at their destination (v. 8).

The Second Consequence: Ethical Knowledge and Protection of One’s Godly Character (2:9–11)

The son who diligently seeks after wisdom will not only attain relationship with God and his protection but will also develop a high ethical character that will defend him from danger. “Then you,” the logical consequence of the son’s meeting the conditions of verses 1–4, will become a person who does “what is right and just and fair” (NIV). In other words, the disciple will achieve the book’s ethical goal of character transformation as described in 1:3. The result of such transformation is explained in verse 11 using the same verbs as in verse 8, except in reverse order. The reversal serves to make a tight connection between theology and ethics: the disciple’s ethical character, endued with “discretion” and “understanding,” will “protect . . . and . . . guard” him (v. 11).

Stanza 2 (2:12–22)

Protection from Evil Men (2:12–15)

The protection of God and that of the son’s own wise character are necessary in order to be delivered from evil men and their “perverted (i.e., crooked) speech.” These reprobates once had the chance to follow wisdom but rejected “the paths of uprightness” (i.e., the divinely established moral standards) and chose instead “to walk in the ways of darkness.” Now hardened in their wickedness, they are so emotionally attached to evil that they “rejoice . . . and delight” in it. “Whose paths are crooked” means their lifestyles deviate from the standard of God’s own character, which is straight and upright (Ps 25:8). Those whose characters are not fortified by wisdom are easy targets for such evil men.

Protection from the Adulterous Woman (2:16–19)

The second danger awaiting the son is the temptation to illicit sex with the “adulteress.” The identity of this character, whom we meet here for the first time, is hotly debated.¹³ We identify her as a married woman who seeks sexual pleasure outside her marriage with gullible men. So dangerous is she that the father devotes his final three lectures to warning the son to avoid her (5:1–23; 6:20–35; 7:1–27; cf. 22:14; 23:33). Two terms and two behaviours describe her. The first term, ʾiššâ zārâ, can be rendered “adulteress” (NIV) or “forbidden woman” (ESV). She is forbidden in the sense that she is married and therefore forbidden to other men. The basic meaning of the second term, nokriyyâ, is “foreign woman” (NASB). This woman is not a foreigner in the literal sense but in the spiritual sense of behaving as a foreigner to the covenant values of Israel. Behaviourally, she is described as someone who “forsakes the companion of her youth” (i.e., her husband; cf. 6:20–35; 7:19–20) and “forgets (i.e., abandons) the covenant of her God” (i.e., her marriage vows that she made before God; cf. Ezek 16:8). Both behaviours indicate adultery (cf. Mal 2:14–16, where the men are accused of this sin). Illicit sex, as symbolized by the adulterous woman, is another profound danger that can lead the unwise to death (v. 19; cf. 7:23), loss of hard-earned income (5:9–10), loss of reputation (6:33), civil punishments (6:31), and judgment from God (5:21). The person without wisdom’s protection has no chance against it.

Conclusion: Life vs. Death (2:20–22)

The father brings his exhortation to follow the way of wisdom to a climax with a final demonstration of its benefits. Safeguarded by God and by his own ethical character, the son “will walk in the way of the good” and, having rejected the temptations of the wicked, “will keep to the paths of the righteous.” Finally, verses 21–22 state the results of following or rejecting wisdom in universal terms: the righteous will live forever (cf. 12:28), while the wicked will be annihilated from the “land,” a metonymy for life. The glorious destiny of the righteous-wise is to live eternally in a land purified of the wicked and their polluting ways (cf. Deut 28:63; Ps 37:34; Matt 5:5; Rev 21:7–8).

In this lecture the father admonishes his son to accept wisdom by alternating admonitions to obey in the even verses with promises to motivate obedience in the odd verses. Structurally, the lecture consists of six couplets. The first and last form an inclusio by their repeated address “My son,” followed by admonition (vv. 1, 11) and motivation (vv. 2, 12). The first two couplets (vv. 1–2, 3–4) form the introduction, followed by three couplets that form the main body (vv. 5–6, 7–8, 9–10), and the last couplet concludes the lesson (vv. 11–12).

Introduction (3:1–4)

3:1–2 The father begins with two admonitions: “do not forget” (i.e., cut oneself off from) his authoritative “teaching,” but “keep” (lit. guard) his “commands,” which in the book’s final form refers to all of its teachings.¹⁴ The two admonitions are paired with two promises if the son obeys: endless “life” and “peace” (šālôm = holistic well-being and the absence of discord [cf. Jer 9:11]). Long life without peace is hellish.

3:3–4 These verses contain two admonitions urging the son not to let the virtues of “steadfast love (ḥesed) and faithfulness (or unbroken loyalty) forsake” him but to “bind them around his neck,” a metaphor signifying to display the virtues prominently in his life (see 1:9).¹⁵ Ḥesed refers to kindness that cannot be demanded or taken for granted but is voluntarily and freely given to a needy person. Verses 27–30 illustrate how these virtues are practically applied. A single promise with two aspects closes the introduction: “favor” (or grace) from God and a “good reputation” (ESV footnote) with humans.

Main Body (3:5–10)

3:5–6 Three admonitions (vv. 5–6a) challenge the son to “trust in the LORD” entirely—“all your heart”; exclusively—”do not lean (i.e., rely) on your own understanding”; and constantly—“in all your ways.” To trust the LORD means to put one’s confidence and hope of security in him because he is omnicompetent and so controls all situations. Its opposite is self-confidence, which is eschewed because the limited knowledge and resources of mortals cannot be relied upon to handle all situations. Waltke renders “acknowledge him” (ESV, KJV, NASB) as “desire his presence” because the former does not fully capture the sense of the Hebrew verb (dāʿēhû). In that case, the admonition urges the son to know God personally. The concomitant promise is stated in verse 6b. God will “make straight” (i.e., untwist and remove obstacles and dangers that impede progress) the “paths” (cf. 1:15) of the ones who trust him so that they successfully reach their goal.

3:7–8 Two admonitions—one negative, warning the son not to be an arrogant know-it-all, and the other positive, exhorting him to “fear the LORD” (v. 7)—lead to the double promise that knowing and trusting God brings wholeness to body and spirit. To “shun evil” (NIV) is the flip side of fearing the LORD and the positive complement to not being “wise in your own eyes” (cf. 26:12). “Flesh” (lit. navel) symbolizes the body, and with the parallel “bones” (i.e., skeleton) forms a merism signifying complete physical and spiritual health.

3:9–10 A single admonition followed by two promises closes the lesson’s body. This time the admonition pertains to the public worship of God. To “honor the LORD” means to think of him as supreme and to show it publicly by word (praise) and deed (gift). The latter is in view here. “Wealth” (9a) is escalated in its parallel (9b) to “firstfruits . . .” (9b) to indicate that, whatever one’s gift, it must be the best and must be accompanied with love for and devotion to the LORD. To offer sacrifice without attendant devotion is abhorrent to him (cf. Gen 4:2–7; Hos 6:6). Only here in Proverbs are temple sacrifices mentioned (cf. 7:14; 15:8; 17:1; 21:3, 27). The double promise states that God will reciprocate with abundance to those who honor him with their wealth. “Plenty” is a metonymy for grain that paralleled with “wine” forms a merism signifying a complete supply of provisions. “Filled” and “bursting” signify the abundance of the LORD’s blessing.

Conclusion (3:11–12)

The concluding couplet enjoins the son not to reject the LORD’s discipline because such chastening keeps the son from apostasy and is rooted in love, the essence of a true father-son relationship. The admonition assumes that the son could stray and will require divine discipline to bring him back to the right path. Correction, however, only works on one willing to accept it. Hence the admonition, “do not despise” it. The LORD’s “discipline” (see 1:2) may include corporal punishment such as an affliction (see 5:12; Ps 32:3–4; 1Cor 11:30; cf. 2Cor 12:7) and/or verbal reproof (19:25; Job 33:12–18; Ps 141:5). Hebrews 12:3–12 provides an authoritative commentary on these verses (cf. Deut 8:5; Job 5:17; Ps 94:12).

This lecture lauds the value of wisdom not just generally (vv. 13–18) but also specifically to God (vv. 19–20) and to the son (vv. 21–26). The lecture ends with a lesson on the practical application of wisdom to relations with one’s neighbor (vv. 27–35).

The Incomparable Blessing of Wisdom (3:13–18)

The section begins and ends with words for blessing (ʾašrê [13a]; mĕʾuššār [18b]). “Blessed” (or “Fortunate!”) describes a person who lives life optimally, as God intended, regardless of circumstance (see 8:32, 34; 28:14; Job 5:17; Pss 1:1–3; 32:1–2; 119:1–3; Isa 56:2; cf. Matt 5:3–12; Rev 1:3; 22:14; and passim). Here it describes the human who “finds,” through diligent searching, “wisdom.” Such a person is fortunate because the “profit” (i.e., revenue) that wisdom earns cannot be compared with the profit garnered by “silver” and “gold.” Wisdom is also better than jewelry,¹⁶ (v. 15; cf. 8:11) because, while other endeavors can provide material wealth, only wisdom bestows both “long life” and “honor” (i.e., material wealth [see Gen 31:1; Isa 10:3] and the social esteem that comes with it [cf. Prov 8:18; 22:4]). Wisdom’s “ways” (i.e., how she treats her followers) are “pleasantness” (i.e., kind and good) and “peace” (šālôm; see 3:1–2). The escalation of wisdom’s benefits reaches a crescendo in verse 18, where she is compared with “a tree of life,” a common ANE image for healing and eternal life (see Gen 2:2; 3:22; Prov 11:30; 13:12; 15:4; Rev 2:4; 22:2). Finding wisdom, therefore, is a matter of eternal life or death.

Wisdom’s Value to God’s Work of Creation (3:19–20)

Not only is wisdom indispensable to humanity, but this couplet argues that it is also indispensable to God. God himself created a fully functioning and life-sustaining cosmos—“Earth and heavens”—by “wisdom” (cf. 8:22–31; Ps 104:24; Jer 10:12) and “understanding” (i.e., skill, know-how).¹⁷ Having created the cosmos by wisdom, God sustains it by his “knowledge” (see 1:4). “The deeps broke open” uses the language, but not the theology, of myth to describe God’s controlled release of the subterranean waters to irrigate the earth. The couplet implies that if wisdom was essential to God to establish a stable universe, how much more essential is it for the son to establish a stable life?

Wisdom’s Value to the Son (3:21–26)

Two Hebrew words for “guard” (nĕṣōr [v. 21b] and šāmar [v. 26b]) bracket this three-couplet section that assures the son that if he guards God’s wisdom (v. 21), God will guard him (v. 26). The first couplet (vv. 21–22) admonishes the son to “not let them” [i.e., wisdom and understanding, v. 19; cf. v. 13] “depart,” a litotes (an understatement using the negative) signifying to hold fast (see v. 18). “Your eyes” implies that the teachings have been written down and need to be read repeatedly. The reward for holding on to wisdom is inwardly “life for your soul” and outwardly “adornment for your neck,” a metaphor signifying social honor (see 1:9; 3:3).

The second couplet (vv. 23–24) states the logical consequence of keeping wisdom, namely, round-the-clock protection. The wise disciple will “walk” (i.e., live) safely because God will ensure that his “foot will not stumble,” and when he sleeps—a time of vulnerability—he will not fear, for God will keep him safe from enemies both real and imaginary, and so his sleep “will be sweet.”

The final couplet (vv. 25–26) commands the son not to fear because, if he adheres to wisdom, God will protect him from “the sudden terror” and “ruin” that is brought upon the “wicked” at their time of judgment (1:26–27; cf. Ps 35:8). The wise disciple can count on this protection because God’s presence will be “at” his “side” to keep his foot “from being caught” (i.e., he will walk safely through life). The latter assurance, however, has to be considered in light of the gnomic nature of the proverbs. A single proverb cannot contain the whole truth of the situation and requires the balance of other proverbs that warn that the righteous will fall (24:16), that they may be slain by the wicked (1:11–12), and that they may stray from the right way and need to be disciplined back into it (3:11). The truth of the proverb must be viewed in light of the whole of life, from which perspective the faithful see that the righteous will live, and the wicked will perish (cf. Ps 37:10).

The Lesson: How to Treat Neighbors (3:27–35)

Following the exordium (vv. 13–26), the lesson falls nicely into two halves of four verses each (vv. 27–30; 32–35) around a Janus verse (v. 31). The first half enjoins the son to be a loving and faithful neighbor (see v. 3); the second supplies the rationale for doing so, namely, because the LORD rewards the righteous but punishes the wicked. The Janus warns the son to avoid the vicious neighbor who, unlike the needy neighbor in the first half, does not merit the son’s help. The lesson teaches the son how the command to “keep sound wisdom and discretion” (v. 21b) is applied in practice.

How to Treat Good Neighbors (3:27–30)

Verses 27–28 form a proverb pair instructing the son not to delay in assisting a needy neighbor. The “good” (tôb) the son is to offer most likely refers to practical help (cf. 12:14; 13:2) such as money, provisions, and/or physical aid. “Those to whom it is due” signifies people who are in need and should be interpreted broadly as including the poor (cf. LXX), and/or any needy neighbor. “When it is in your power to do it” limits the benefactor’s help to what he can do without jeopardising himself, as that would be folly (6:1–5; cf. 2Cor 8:12; Gal 6:10). Morally perverse people, however, such as the sluggard, the wicked, and the fool, have no claim to help from the wise. Since help delayed is help refused, the second proverb (v. 28) advances the first by telling the son not to engage in delaying tactics but to aid the neighbor post haste (cf. Jas 5:4).

The next proverb pair (vv. 29–30) forbids the son from treating trusting neighbors maliciously. Trust between members of a community is a paramount requirement for its health. Verse 29 commands the son not to disrupt that trust by planning “evil” (i.e., anything that diminishes life) against an innocent neighbor. “Dwells trustingly (i.e., securely) beside you” describes a neighbor who has done no wrong and so expects no wrong. The next proverb (v. 30) advises the son not to needlessly quarrel with a person. Legitimate quarrels may arise between people, and Proverbs 25:9 provides guidance on how to handle them. But here the victim is innocent, as confirmed in the B verset.

Janus: Avoiding the Vicious Neighbor (3:31)

The topic shifts from good neighbors to evil neighbors. “Do not envy (i.e., seek to emulate) a man of violence” (i.e., someone who acquires wealth through wickedness, as the gang did in 1:10–19). The B verset escalates the admonition to rejecting such a person in toto.

Rationale: God Chastises the Wicked but Favors the Righteous (3:32–35)

“For” introduces the rationale for the son’s response to the good and bad neighbor. Every proverb except for the last mentions the LORD as the agent who blesses the righteous and curses the wicked.

The first proverb (v. 32) contrasts the “devious” (see 2:15) with the “upright” (see 2:13). The former are an “abomination” (tôʿăbat; i.e., morally repugnant) to the LORD because they inflict physical and social damage on others to benefit themselves. By contrast, those who keep his moral standards are taken into his “confidence” and so are entrusted with his most intimate thoughts by which they are able to live wisely and righteously.

The second proverb (v. 33) escalates the devious to the “wicked” and the “upright” to the “righteous.” The former are those who advantage themselves by disadvantaging others. Their “house,” a metonymy referring to all the dwellers therein along with their illicitly acquired possessions, are under the “LORD’s curse” and so will be destroyed. In contrast, the “dwelling of the righteous” (i.e., those who disadvantaged themselves to advantage others) are under his blessing and so are protected and empowered to succeed. How and when the wicked will be cursed and the righteous blessed remains in the LORD’s hands. The proverb does, however, imply that for a time the wicked will be prosperous (cf. Ps 73:3–11).

The third proverb (v. 34) escalates the devious (v. 32) and the wicked (v. 33) to “scoffers,” the highest of fools, and applies the recurrent wisdom idea of divine quid pro quo to them: “toward the scorners (better “scoffers”; see 1:22) he (i.e., the LORD) is scornful.” Scorners are extremely antisocial deviants who not only scoff at divine wisdom but also oppress the weak for their own gain (see Isa 29:19–20). God will ensure that their brutal exploitation of others returns on their own heads. In contrast, “the humble” (i.e., those who are meek as well as oppressed) will receive God’s “favor” (ḥēn). When a person is favored by God, he makes that person attractive and winsome to others (see 1:9; 13:15; cf. Exod 3:21).

The climactic proverb (v. 35) sums up the righteous and the upright as “the wise” and the devious and the scoffers as “fools” and their respective ends as “honor” (kābôd, here referring to social esteem) and “shame” (qālôn, here referring to social disgrace). Although this proverb breaks the pattern of the previous three by not mentioning the LORD, he is the implied Agent who bestows upon the fools and the wise their respective fates.

The father’s fifth lesson encourages the son to acquire wisdom because it belongs to the family’s heritage, having been passed down to the father by his own father, the son’s grandfather. If the son accepts the grandfather’s wisdom, not only will he continue the unbroken family tradition of maintaining wisdom, but also wisdom will richly reward him with honor and victory. Structurally, the lecture falls into two parts: introduction (vv. 1–2) and lesson (vv. 3–9). The introduction consists of a command to listen with motivation. The lesson is framed by forms of the verb “to give” (nātan) which connect the father’s giving wisdom to the son (“I give”; nātattî [v. 2]) with wisdom’s giving him the crown of honor (“she will give”; tittēn [v. 9]).

Introduction (4:1–2)

The introduction deviates from previous introductions in its plural address of “sons” (see 5:7; 7:24; 8:32–33) and its identification of the teacher as “a father” instead of “your father,” or “I.” The two indefinite references suggest that here a fatherly type of lesson is being addressed to the entire lineage of sons.¹⁸ To the commands to “hear instruction” (i.e., character-shaping discipline) and to “be attentive” to the “knowledge” (i.e., the lesson) that gives “insight” (or discernment), the father adds the motivation that it is “good” (tôb; i.e., it benefits the family).

Lesson (4:3–9)

4:3–4 The father begins the lesson by mentioning the loving training he received from his parents. This creates empathy because it lets the son know that his teacher was once, like him, needing to be taught.¹⁹ In Proverbs, to be a son is not merely a matter of biological descent, but it is to reproduce the parents’ spiritual character. The mention of the “mother” who cherished (yāḥîd) her son completes the picture of the loving home in which the father received his education in wisdom.

4:5–9 The father states that the central point he was taught was “get (qĕnē) wisdom, get insight.” The imperative qĕnē (from qānâ, also glossed as “acquire,” “buy”²⁰) occurs four times (v. 5 [2x]; v. 7 [2x]) to emphasize that wisdom is both the “beginning” of the educational process as well as its prime goal: “whatever you get, get insight.” Some scholars suggest that the use of qĕnē personifies wisdom as a bride to be married and loved by the son. In that case, the commands to acquire wisdom (vv. 5, 7) teach the sons to spare no expense in acquiring her (see 3:13–15; 8:11; 16:16). The bride-price for wisdom is high, but her numerous rewards to the one who stays with her (v. 6a), loves her (v. 6b), prizes her (v. 8a), and embraces her (v. 8b) are incalculable. These rewards are enumerated as: protection—“she will keep . . . she will guard” (v. 6)—and social esteem—“she will exalt . . . she will honor” (v. 8). In verse 9 they are summed up with the metaphors of “graceful garland” and “beautiful crown” (see 1:9; 3:3).

In this lecture the father motivates his son to accept the way of wisdom (vv. 10–13) and reject the way of the wicked (vv. 14–17). He describes wisdom’s way as an untrammeled path that leads to life but the way of the wicked as obstructed by “evilholics.”²¹ His graphic portrayal of the nature of the wicked aims to repel the son so that he will not even set foot on their path. His purpose is similar to that of his first lecture (1:8–19), wherein he graphically portrayed the crimes of the wicked in the hope that they will horrify his son into avoiding them. Structurally, the lecture falls nicely into two halves of four verses each (vv. 10–13; 14–17). The conclusion (vv. 18–19) contrasts the two ways and implies that there is no “third” way.

4:10–13 The section begins and ends with commands to accept the father’s teaching and the motivating promise that doing so leads to life (vv. 10, 13). Within this frame the father describes his authoritative instruction as the primary medium that imparts wisdom (v. 11). This implies that wisdom is not discovered by oneself or by accident. It requires authoritative impartation by a sage. “Paths of uprightness” (v. 11b) transposes “way of wisdom” (v. 11a) into the moral/ethical register and confirms the book’s purpose that acquiring wisdom is to develop an upright character (1:3). The plural “paths” suggest that each individual, fortified by a moral/ethical character, must walk his or her unique life-road.

In verse 12, the father describes the way of wisdom as an untrammelled road, such that whether walking or even running on it, one is safe. This ensures safe arrival at the destination: eternal life. An unrestricted path, however, is useless unless made use of. Therefore, in v. 13 the father commands his son to “keep hold of” (haḥăzēq) his character-shaping “instruction.” The root of the verb haḥăzēq denotes “to be strong,” “to be firm,” and suggests that the instruction must be held on to with all one’s might. The additional commands, “do not let go, guard,” suggest that it must be held on to steadfastly.

4:14–17 This section directs the son to avoid the way of the wicked (vv. 14–15) and motivates him to do so by describing their gruesome character (vv. 16–17). In verses 14–15, the father utilizes a total of six commands to admonish the son to stay clear of the wicked and their ways. The first two, “do not enter,” “do not walk” (v. 14), forbid the son from setting out upon the lifestyle of the wicked. Then, in a blistering volley of four commands (v. 15)—“avoid it,” “do not go on it,” “turn away from it,” “pass on”—the father drives home the need to purposefully and deliberately reject the path of the wicked. Passive avoidance of evil is insufficient. It must be actively resisted.

“For” states the reason why the wicked way must be avoided. It is the lifestyle of “evilholics” who feed on evil and cannot rest until they have plotted the demise of others (vv. 16–17). Unlike those who stay awake at the thought that they may have done wrong, the wicked cannot sleep unless they have done wrong. Insomnia plagues them until they have made plans to trip up others (cf. Ps 36:4; Mic 2:1). Then, in the day, they carry out their devilry. “Eat the bread of wickedness,” “drink the wine of violence” could mean that they live off their plundered products, bread and wine signifying a complete supply of provisions (see 3:10); or that wickedness and violence are their sources of energy. Since the latter speaks more to their character, it is preferable. In sum, the wicked are violent sociopaths²² to be avoided with all one’s might.

4:18–19 The father concludes his lesson on the two ways by contrasting their respective destinies. The “path of the righteous” is not only free of obstacles (v. 12) but also well illuminated and so safe. “Like the light of dawn” refers to the early morning sun which not only enables sight but also grows in brightness, the sense required by the parallel (v. 18b). The light imagery signifies that a righteous course of life is marked by joy, prosperity, peace, and abundant life. “Until full day” refers to midday when the morning light has reached its peak. The imagery visualizes the righteous as advancing continuously until they reach complete salvation. Not so the “way of the wicked.” Their life-road is marked by “darkness,” a metaphor signifying misery, defeat, uncertainty, and, ultimately, death. “They do not know,” due to lack of wisdom, “over what they stumble” (i.e., the many deadly traps their actions are leading them into; see 1:18).

In this lecture the father enjoins the son to commit himself wholly to the father’s teaching and never to deviate from it. The lesson begins and ends with commands based on the root nāṭâ: “turn” (v. 20b); “do not turn” (v. 27a). Structurally, the lecture begins with an introduction addressed to the son followed by admonitions and motivations (vv. 20–22). The main lesson directs the son to commit his being and actions unswervingly to the father’s words (vv. 23–27).

Introduction (4:20–22)

The introductory admonition commands the son to dedicate his three primary organs of reception—“ear,” “eyes” (or sight), and “heart”—to receiving and keeping the father’s sayings. The individual organs probably function as synecdoches for the total self. Nevertheless, each organ functions in a unique way in the appropriation of wisdom. The ear hears it, the eye reads it, and the heart stores it. Verse 23 states the motivation: “for they (i.e., the proverbs and sayings in the rest of the book) are life (see 3:18; 8:35) . . . and healing” (see 3:8). “To all his (ESV footnote) flesh” (better, “body” [NIV]) refers to complete health—physical and psychological. “Sound teaching preserves a person better than medicine, though the two should not be pitted against each other.”²³

Lesson (4:23–27)

The lesson begins with the command to guard the heart and ends with the command to keep the foot from evil. “To keep” (or guard) the heart means to prevent it from committing evil (cf. Jer 17:9; Mark 7:20–23), something only possible if it is filled with wisdom.

The primary reason for guarding the heart is that “from it flow the springs of life,” an image that portrays the heart as the source that controls all of life’s activities. The heart plays a different role in verses 22 and 23. The former emphasizes the heart’s passive role in storing wisdom, the latter the heart’s dynamic role as the engine that drives the person. An engine, however, requires good quality fuel. The father considers his wisdom to be ‘good fuel’ and so admonishes his son “to keep” (i.e., to fill) his heart with it. The lesson next addresses the disciple’s mouth, eyes, and feet. Guarding the heart against evil is not enough. One must also ensure that all the other members of the body are united in the rejection of wickedness and aligned in the way of wisdom. In this way wisdom’s ideal of integrity of character is ensured. The heart does not believe in one thing, while the foot does something else. All the body parts must be aligned toward one way—the way of wisdom.

The father’s final three lectures in the Prologue warn the son against adultery (5:1–23; 6:20–35; 7:1–27). Up to now the father has mainly concentrated on exhorting the son to accept the way of wisdom. In the final lectures, however, he delves deep into the danger of folly, especially the folly of adultery. The adulteress, who was briefly mentioned in 2:16–20, functions in these lectures on both the historical and sapiential registers. In the case of the former, she is a flesh-and-blood temptress who must be avoided; in the case of the latter, she is a metaphor for the way of folly which must be rejected.

In Lecture 8, the father warns the son that sex with the adulteress will lead to social and economic ruin. He outlines this ruin in detail in order to emphasize the point that adultery is costly. He then offers his solution to the temptation of illicit sex: a robust sexual relationship with the son’s own wife. The heartbeat of the lecture is the importance of accepting the father’s instruction, which promotes life and safeguards against death. That heartbeat becomes audible in verses 1, 7, 12–13, and 23.

Structurally, the lecture falls into three parts: introduction consisting of admonitions with supporting motivations (5:1–6); main body consisting of two parts: the costs of adultery (5:7–14) and the joy of sex within marriage (5:15–20); and the conclusion warning the disciple that God is watching and will ensure that the sinner’s sin will entrap him in the cords of death (5:21–23).

Introduction (5:1–6)

The father begins by commanding the son to pay attention to, and so internalize, his “wisdom” and “insight.” Doing so will enable the son to “keep (or guard) discretion” (i.e., shrewdness; see 1:4) and “to guard knowledge.” The motivation is stated in verses 3–6. The son’s discretion, exercised especially in wise speech, will be his chief protection against the temptations of the “forbidden woman” (or “adulteress”; see 2:16–19) who will approach him with alluring, lubricious speech. But he must counteract her with discretion and wise speech as Joseph did Potiphar’s wife (Gen 39:7–10). While sexual encounters may begin with sight, they quickly move to speech when the lovers begin suggestive, seductive communication. The father reframes this encounter as a battle between life and death fought primarily with words, and thus seeks to forearm his son with words forged in wisdom. In verses 4–6 the father warns that what begins smoothly ends in disaster because the temptress is a social deviant who is in league with the grave. The implied warning is that those who join her are joining themselves to death.

The Costs of Adultery (5:7–14)

The lesson proper (5:7–20) begins with renewed calls to listen to the father’s words and to avoid the temptress (5:7–8).²⁴ The extended motivation for the prohibition (5:9–14) explains that sex with her will lead to financial and social ruin. The four epithets, “others” (5:9a; pl.), “merciless” (5:9b; sing.), “strangers” (5:10a; pl.), and “foreigner” (5:10b; sing.) all refer to the same group, with the singular referring to the adulteress’ husband and the plural to his wider family. Their foreignness is not literal but spiritual, in that they are foreigners to the community of the wise (5:11–14). The son who commits folly with the “foreign” woman will be hounded by her “foreign” husband who will bring him to trial and punishment in the community of the wise (5:11–14).

Four nouns describe what he will lose. “Honor” (better, “splendor”) and “years” (better, “dignity”) (5:9) probably refer to the social esteem that wealth provides, while “strength” and “labors” (5:10; cf. 31:3) refer to the difficult effort it takes to produce such wealth. The point is that the enraged cuckold will demand that the court hand over to him all of the son’s hard-earned wealth, and the court will have to comply. Verse 10 may also suggest that the merciless husband will demand the son’s labor as a slave. If the court grants this, then at the end of his life, with his physical body shredded and his strength sapped, he will “groan” (i.e., cry out in destitution).

Through four confessions the foolish fornicator describes how he ended up in this situation: he “hated discipline” and “despised reproof” and so “did not listen” or “incline his ears” to his instructors. The total ruin that resulted from his private rejection of wisdom was “soon” (kimʿaṭ, not “brink” as ESV; see Pss 2:12; 81:14) made public to the “assembled congregation” (i.e., whole community), adding the social stigmas of shame and disgrace to his other punishments.

The Joy of Sex within Marriage (5:15–20)

Instead of seeking sexual satisfaction from another man’s wife, the father exhorts his son to seek it from his own wife. The lesson acknowledges the power of sexual urges and offers the wise way of satisfying them. This section uses a number of images to represent the wife and the joy of sex within marriage that can be difficult for modern readers to interpret. “Water” (5:20), “springs,” and “streams” (5:16) are images for sexual satisfaction (see Song 5:1). “Cistern,” “well,” and “fountain” (1:15; 18a) represent the wife as the source of sexual satisfaction. The animal imagery “deer” and “doe” (1:19) represent the wife as an erotic figure of grace and beauty (see Song 2:9, 17; 4:5).

“Drink water from your own cistern . . . well” (1:15) commands the son to quench his sexual thirst through lovemaking with his own wife. “Cistern” and “well,” which in the Old Testament were normally private sources of water (Gen 26:17–22; 2Kgs 18:31), are images for the wife as the exclusive source of sexual satisfaction. Verse 16, rendered as a rhetorical question in most versions, asks the son, in effect, if it is good to seek sexual gratification from “public” sources such as the adulteress who stalks “the streets” (7:8, 12). The expected answer is “No!” Instead, all of his sexual needs ought to be satisfied by his own wife with whom he shares an exclusive commitment (5:17). Sex with a “foreign woman” lacks this exclusivity because she may be shared by many men (cf. Lev 18; Amos 2:7).

In 5:18–19 the father offers a benediction upon his son’s sexual relationship. He prays that his son’s “fountain,” a metaphor for his wife as provider of sexual quenching, will “be blessed” (i.e., possess the power to produce wellbeing²⁵). The use of the passive implies the Lord is the subject to whom the father directs his benediction. “Rejoice” means to experience exuberant, physical euphoria. “Wife of your youth” suggests that it is one’s wife who provides the richest, deepest form of sexual satisfaction throughout one’s married years. The use of animal imagery in 5:19 to depict the wife’s sensual grace and beauty might seem strange to us, but it was common in the culture of the day. The father wishes his son to be staggering drunk with the physical love his wife will give him. “Let her breasts (or nipples) satisfy you at all times” suggests she is available and willing for lovemaking. “Fill you with delight” suggests the high quality of her lovemaking.

It is important to note that this lesson focuses solely on experiencing sexual pleasure within marriage. It does not mention any of its other benefits such as the procreation of children or economic stability. It is also important to note that in accordance with the book’s focus on the male, only the husband’s sexual pleasure is mentioned. How the wife is to be treated during sex or what she derives from the union is not the focus. Other canonical books such as the Song of Solomon portray the woman as primary actor in the sexual relationship, and later revelation asserts that in marriage the sexual relationship belongs equally to the wife and the husband (1Cor 7:1–5).

Verse 20 ties the lesson back to the main point: stay away from the adulteress. Since full sexual satisfaction can be achieved through sex with one’s wife, it is absurd to seek it with an adulteress.

Conclusion (5:21–23)

So far, the lesson against adultery has focused primarily on its practical social and economic costs. It has not mentioned that adultery is a violation of God’s moral law (Exod 20:14; Lev 18:20; Deut 5:18). Now, however, the father claims that adultery is wrong because it violates God’s moral order and brings disaster on those who violate it. The omniscient God is constantly watching and evaluating all conduct. He has ordered the world so that one’s deeds lead to consequences. Those who sin will find that very sin, personified as a trapper, trapping them and holding them captive for slaughter. Verse 23 ties this deadly state to the sinner’s rejection of wisdom, thus linking sinning against God with rejecting wisdom. Once again, the lesson underscores that accepting or rejecting wisdom is a matter of life or death.

After warning the son to avoid the folly of adultery, this section adds three more dangers that the wise must avoid. The first two, the surety (6:1–5) and the sluggard (6:6–11), like the adulteress, threaten financial wellbeing, while the anarchist (6:12–19) threatens community wellbeing and will be destroyed by the LORD. In contrast to the sluggard and sociopath, only the surety is addressed as “my son” (6:1, 3), probably because while the surety displays poor judgment, the sluggard and sociopath are depraved characters.

The Folly of Guaranteeing Another’s Debts (6:1–5)

While the Bible prescribes generosity to the needy (Deut 15:7–11; Prov 3:27–28; 2Cor 8:1–9; 1Tim 6:17–19), it does not require one to take reckless risks to practise it (see 3:27). Guaranteeing someone else’s debts is risky because one has no control over the circumstances (see 11:15; 17:18–20; 20:16; 22:26; 27:13). If the borrower reneges on the loan, the creditor will demand payment from the guarantor. And if the guarantor guaranteed the loan without considering the cost, then the demand to pay could ruin him. “My son” may imply a son who is starting in life and does not yet have the resources to cover someone else’s debt. By agreeing to secure another’s loan, he has trapped himself (6:2, 3, 5), a stark metaphor signifying imminent (economic) death. The only solution is to get out of the agreement as quickly as possible. The three commands—“Go . . . hasten . . . plead” (6:3)—drive home both the urgency with which the son must act and what he must do to deliver himself. As the widow badgered the unjust judge (Luke 18:1–5), and as the neighbor pestered his friend (Luke 11:8), the disciple must pester the borrower to cancel the suretyship.

The Folly of Laziness (6:6–11)

The lesson against laziness is in two equal parts (6:6–8; 9–11), each beginning with the address “O sluggard.” The first commands the sluggard to observe the wisdom of the ant’s diligence and its beneficial consequences in an effort to shame the sluggard to change. The second exhorts him to consider the devastating consequences of his laziness.

The ant’s wisdom is manifold. First, it does not need anyone to force it to work. It works out of an inner motivation to survive. Second, it knows when to work, namely, at harvest time when its work will be successful and not wasted. All the effort in the world is fruitless if not made at the right time. Thirdly, it understands that life operates in cycles of weal and woe. Therefore, in times of weal it saves for times of woe. The implied point is that the ant’s wisdom and diligence ensure its future survival.

By contrast, the sluggard’s torpidity ensures his indigence. Rather than going to the ant and learning its wisdom the sluggard chooses to stay in bed and sleep. This characteristic behavior shows that he loves his sleep even more than his life (cf. 21:25). The proverb of verses 10–11 (see 24:33–34) connects the sluggard’s outer behavior (sleep) with its inner, deadly consequence: poverty. Verse 11a personifies poverty as an aimless wanderer who lives as a parasite upon society, and verse 11b escalates the personification to a robber who powerfully and forcefully snatches the possessions of others (6:11b). The idea is that poverty stalks the world looking for victims to plunder, and its easiest victim is the snoring sluggard.

The Folly of Disrupting Community Harmony (6:12–19)

The third danger that the wise avoid is the anarchist who disrupts community peace. Such people top the list of things that God hates (6:19b) and so are destroyed by him (6:15). Structurally, two originally independent teachings, one on the characteristics of the troublemaker (6:12–15) and the other a list of things God hates (16–19), have been brought together because thematically they concern the issues of community harmony and its disruption by the wicked. The Book of Proverbs recognizes community harmony as one of God’s highest priorities and so instructs the wise on how to maintain it. Those who disrupt it are an abomination to God and will be destroyed.

6:12–15 can be subdivided as follows: the identity of the agitator (v. 12a); his behaviors (v. 12b–14); his judgment (v. 15).

Two terms are used to identify the agitator: “worthless person” (ʾādām bĕliyyaʿal) and “wicked man” (îš ʾāwen). The former term is used widely in the Old Testament to describe rapists (Judg 19:22; 20:13), apostates (Deut 13:14), drunks (1Sam 1:16), insurrectionists (1Sam 10:27), wicked priests (1Sam 2:12), and all-round wretched people like Nabal (1Sam 25:17) and those who gave false witness against Naboth (1Kgs 21:10, 13). The one thing they all have in common is that they act against divinely established community norms and so are of no benefit to society. “Wicked man” is not a different person but describes the worthless person from God’s point of view.

The behaviors—crooked speech, winks with his eyes, signals with his feet, points with his finger (6:12b–14)—can either describe the troublemaker’s disordered character or the clandestine way in which he communicates with his fellow conspirators to cause harm. Most commentators opt for the latter interpretation. Verse 15 describes the wicked agitator’s demise. The agent of judgement is not named, but the use of the divine passive, “he will be broken” (yiššābēr), indicates the LORD as the ultimate cause, a fact made explicit in 6:16–19.

6:12–19 lists seven abominations to God: five misused organs and two types of antisocial people. Following immediately after the teaching on the troublemaker, this indicates that while each of the abominations represents different disordered personality types,²⁶ together they represent the anarchist of 6:12–15.

Here we also encounter the first of the numerical sayings in the Book of Proverbs.²⁷ Numerical sayings, which often follow the pattern “there are X . . . X+1,” emphasize the final number of the list. Thus, in 6:16–19, the emphasis is on the seventh abomination, the malicious troublemaker. This does not mean he is the worst of the lot but that he is the one who embodies all the characteristics of the list.

The five misused body parts are listed from top to bottom. “Haughty eyes” represent the proud and arrogant (see 21:4; 30:13). The term is used to describe Sennacherib, king of Assyria (Isa 10:12; 37:23). God opposes the haughty–eyed and will punish them (Ps 18:27; Isa 5:15). “Lying tongue” signifies a person who lies in order to harm others (see Ps 109:2, a psalm applied to Judas in Acts 1:20). “Hands that shed innocent blood” describes a violent murderer. The gang of cutthroats described in 1:11–14 illustrates this type of person. The “heart that devises wicked plans” stands at the center and describes a person who plots how to disadvantage others in order to advantage himself. “Feet that make haste to run to evil” symbolizes the whole person moving eagerly and swiftly to carry out the evil scheme the heart has plotted (cf. 1:16; Isa 59:7; Mic 2:1).

Two antisocial persons complete the list: the false witness and the wicked troublemaker. Both disrupt community harmony, the former by perverting justice, the latter by destroying communal relationships.

The purpose of this list is to describe the characteristics that God abhors in the hope that it will enlighten and energize the disciple to avoid them. The implied heuristic assumption is that the disciple, like the teacher, shares a spiritual stage where fear of God and the desire to please him are paramount. If, however, the disciple does not share that common spiritual stage, then the lesson will fall on deaf ears.

Similar to Lecture 8, this lecture warns the son of the high cost of sex with a married woman. Structurally, the lecture consists of an introduction (6:20–24) and lesson (6:25–35). Each of these sections can be subdivided as in the exposition.

Introduction (6:20–24)

Four imperatives—“keep,” “forsake not,” “bind,” “tie”—admonish the son to adhere to the parents’ wisdom (here referred to as “commandment” and “teaching”). Binding the wisdom to the heart is imagery suggesting that wisdom must be internalized and form the son’s character. Tying the teaching around the neck signifies that wisdom is vital to life (see 1:9).²⁸ To motivate the young man’s obedience, the parents promise that if he accepts their teaching, (personified) wisdom will “lead” (i.e., shepherd), “watch” (i.e., guard), and “talk to” (i.e., counsel) him round the clock (6:20–23). 6:24 transitions from the introduction to the lesson by extending wisdom’s protection to include protection against the “neighbor’s wife” (NIV).²⁹

Lesson (6:25–35)

The lesson consists of three parts:

1. Renewed admonition to avoid the adulteress’s advances (6:25)
2. First reason: The penalty for adultery is severe (6:26–33)
3. Second reason: The betrayed husband will exact revenge mercilessly (6:34–35)

6:25a portrays the temptation from the young man’s viewpoint: to him the adulteress is alluring and beautiful. 6:25b portrays the temptation from the adulteress’s viewpoint: she seeks to capture him with seductive glances and winks.

“For” introduces the first reason to avoid adultery, namely, that its penalty is severe, certain, and lasting. 6:26 describes the severity: the adulterer will pay with his life. The Hebrew of verse 26 is difficult, but an interpretation is possible. The price of sex with a prostitute is a loaf of bread; the price of sex with an adulteress is the sinner’s life. The point of the contrast is to highlight the costs of two types of illegitimate sexual encounters, not to suggest that it would be better for the son to satisfy his passion with a prostitute than with an adulteress. While the Mosaic Law did not explicitly prohibit prostitution, it prohibited the Israelites from allowing their children to become prostitutes (Deut 23:17), thereby implying that prostitution was taboo and the godly-wise avoided it. Proverbs 29:3 warns the wise that associating with prostitutes is a waste of money. The predatory imagery of the adulteress hunting for “precious life” aims to convey the immense jeopardy involved in sex with an adulteress. This jeopardy will be explicated in verse 33.

6:27–29 assures the adulterer that punishment is certain. Through the use of two rhetorical questions that invite the son to think through the issue, the parents emphasize the fact that he cannot escape the consequences of his action. The rhetorical questions, both of which require the answer “Of course not!”, highlight both the stupidity of the respective acts—carrying fire in the bosom instead of in a firepan, and walking on burning coals instead of around them—and the inevitability of the consequences—burns. Verse 29 applies the lesson to adultery. “So is he . . .” indicates the irrationality of the act (see v. 32), while “none . . . will go unpunished” indicates the inevitability of harm.

Not only is the cost of adultery severe and certain, but it is also lasting. Verses 30–33 contrast how the community treats a thief who steals to avoid starvation versus the adulterer who steals sex from another man’s wife. After the thief is caught and has paid for his crime, the community will “not despise” him (i.e., will receive him back). However, they will not do that for the adulterer. His punishment and contempt will never end. An implied understanding here is that food and sex are not on the same level of hierarchy of needs. The thief who stole to survive can be forgiven after punishment. But not sex-starved adulterer cannot because sexual satisfaction is not essential for survival. This is contrary to the modern ethos that claims sex is a necessity for life as is food.

“For” introduces the second reason for avoiding adultery, namely, the fury of the betrayed husband (6:34–35). No amount of compensation will dissuade him from seeking revenge. Mosaic Law stipulated that adulterers were to be executed (Lev 20:10). However, this was not always followed, as is seen in the example of David and Bathsheba (2Sam 11–12). It is possible that other forms of compensation were permitted to the offended spouse, as was the case later in Rabbinic times. In such a case, the husband will take full advantage of his right and take everything he can from the foolish adulterer.

6:32 succinctly summarizes the whole lesson: the adulterer “lacks sense . . . and destroys himself.”

The father’s final lecture again focuses on the adulteress (see 2:16–22; 5:1–23; 6:20–35), this time to prewarn the son concerning her seductive tactics. The lecture takes the form of an eyewitness account in which the father observed a femme fatale approach a gullible young man on the street and with aggressive actions and seductive words persuade him to sleep with her. The father shares his observation not only to inform the son of the trollop’s tactics of temptation, but, even more importantly, to warn him not to be like the gullible who, lacking sense, ended up losing his life to sexual temptation (7:23b). Once again, choosing wisdom is presented as a matter of life or death.

Structurally, the lecture falls into three parts. The Introduction consists of addressee, admonitions, and motivation (7:1–5). The lesson proper describes the father’s observations of the seduction and the lesson he drew from it (7:6–23). The conclusion reiterates the need to avoid adultery and thus avert its inevitable, deadly result (7:24–27). The introduction focuses on attaining life (7:2); the conclusion focuses on avoiding death (7:27).³⁰

Introduction (7:1–5)

The father admonishes his son to “store up” (NIV) his commandments (cf. 2:1). The metaphor signifies memorizing the commandments so that they are readily available when needed (cf. Job 23:12; Ps 119:11). To keep them “as the apple of your eye” (i.e., the pupil) means to safeguard them as one’s greatest possession (cf. Deut 32:10; Ps 17:8). “Bind them on your fingers” means to constantly remember the teaching, and writing them “on the tablet of your heart” refers to internalizing the wisdom so that it transforms character. Calling Wisdom a “sister” personifies it as a bride to be embraced and contrasts with the adulteress who is to be rejected.³¹ Verse 5 affirms that intimacy with Wisdom will provide protection against the temptress.

Lesson (7:6–23)

The main lesson consists of the father’s eyewitness account of a seduction that occurred on the street between an adulteress and her victim, and the father’s prediction of its consequences for the victim.

7:6–13 describes the character of the victim, the setting of the seduction, and the character of the seductress.

“Among the simple . . . among the youths” identifies the victim as one who has not yet committed himself to follow the way of wisdom. Thus, he was “lacking sense” (ḥăsar-lēb, lit. lacking of heart, i.e., mindless, clueless). Wisdom bestows caginess and discernment (1:4). Without these one is easily duped and manipulated by the “wily of heart” (7:10b). “Taking the road to her house” does not mean he was intentionally heading to the adulteress’s home, but that his lack of wisdom was leading him into danger.

Verse 9 utilizes four nouns related to darkness to describe the scene of the encounter. The scenic depiction suggests more than literal darkness. “Twilight” is the ambiguous time in between light and darkness and here symbolizes the ethical ambiguity in which the uncommitted lives. “At the time of night and darkness” symbolizes the moral darkness of the adulteress and the dark destiny descending upon her victim.³²

The description of the adulteress begins with her outward appearance, progresses to her inner character, then her outer actions, and finally her words. “Dressed as a prostitute” (7:10) signifies she is dressed to gain attention and stimulate lust, not that she is a working prostitute offering sex for money. From the way she is dressed, the wise father is able to discern her inner character: “wily of heart” (i.e., one who is deceptive and hides her true intentions).³³ She feigns love for the young fool but wants only sex. Unfortunately, he lacks the insight to discern her true motive. Verse 11 describes her as a “rowdy and rebellious” streetwalker who, having a home, nevertheless prowls the streets for victims to satisfy her primal sexual urges. She finds a perfect victim in the uncommitted dolt. She springs her trap by seizing and kissing him, two immodest but effective acts. To her, the end justifies the means. Verse 13b transitions to the woman’s words by which she conquered him. “Bold face” is imagery for lying with a straight face (see 21:29)³⁴ and suggests that everything she tells the victim is a lie designed to deceive him into making love with her.

Verses 14–20 describe the woman’s speech. She begins by suggesting that she is the best woman for him because she is religious: “I had to offer sacrifices, and today I have paid my vows.” The sacrifice in question is the peace offering which was one of the few in which the offerer received back a portion of the meat to eat with guests (Lev 7:11–21). Her statement may serve to assure him that she is a decent member of the community. But it is a lie. She is a “foreigner” and “stranger” (7:5) to orderly society. Her statement also suggests she has a banquet of delectable meats ready at home for them to dine on.

Her next words suggest that he is the best man for her: “I have come out . . . to seek you eagerly” (i.e., of all the men in the street, he stood out to her due to his particular attractiveness). This too is a lie. The man stood out because he was an easy target.

In verses 16–17 she states that she has the best place for lovemaking. She describes in detail her lavish bed and fills his imagination with the alluring colors, sensual feel, and seductive fragrances of her bedchamber. The materials and spices she lists are costly and suggest that she is well off and well provided for by her husband (7:19).

Climactically, in verse 18 she tells him that they will have the best sex that he can imagine. Her invitation, “come” (lĕkâ), echoes the invitation of the wicked gangsters to the son in 1:11.³⁵ She summons him to enjoy a night of rapturous lovemaking. The Hebrew plural noun dōdîm (7:18a; lit. “loves”) always denotes lovemaking (cf. Song 1:2, 4; 4:10; Ezek 16:8; 23:17), as does the noun ʾŏhābîm (7:18b), which occurs only here. In sum, she promises him a night of unrestrained sex, without emotional attachment.

In verse 19 she adds another layer to the temptation by intimating that this is the best time for sex: her “husband is not at home.” In the Hebrew, she refers to her husband as “the man” and to the home as “his house.” This may suggest that her emotional detachment from her victim (7:18b) also extends to her husband and their home. Her statement in verse 20 indicates that her husband has gone on a business trip—”he took a bag of money with him”—and will not be back until “full moon” (i.e., two weeks if the darkness of verse 9 indicates a “new moon”). Her affirmation that her husband will return implies that she intends to stay with her hardworking provider. Thus, at most she is offering the dimwit only a one-night stand.

Verse 21 returns to the perspective of the father, who declares that the woman’s tactics were a resounding success. In fact, according to him, it was her “seductive speech” (lit. “teaching”) and “smooth talk” that did the trick, even more than her seductive dress and kisses. The latter were the entré to the seduction. The substantive factor was her words. Tragically, in contrast to her verbosity, he is wordless. This is telling. Having forsaken the sage’s “teaching” (see 4:2), he has no “teaching” of his own by which to counteract her “teaching.” Hence, unsurprisingly, “all at once he followed her” (7:22a).

Verses 7:22b–23 use three similes to describe the deadly fate of the dunce. Garrett observes that “as an ox goes to the slaughter” signifies his docility, while “as a stag is caught fast” and “as a bird rushes into a snare” signify his stupidity.³⁶ The tripling of the similes, all of which end in the animal’s death, confirms the certainty of the dunce’s demise.

Conclusion (7:24–27)

The father concludes the lesson with a renewed address (7:24), admonition (7:24–25) and motivation (7:26–27). The admonition, addressed to “sons” (see 4:1; 5:7), mirrors the introduction in warning them to listen to the father’s wisdom and not to “turn aside” from the way of wisdom to the adulteress’s ways, which include lies, deception, temptation, infidelity, and sexual promiscuity. To motivate avoidance, the father again resorts to imagery, this time from the battlefield. The adulteress is a deadly assassin who by her beguiling tactics has dispatched an army of mighty men. Her current object of desire is not her first. However, unlike warriors who die bravely on a battlefield, her victims die ignobly on her bed, because her house is the portal to the grave.

Personified Wisdom’s second appeal (see 1:20–33) again calls the uncommitted to commit themselves to her. This time, however, she focuses more on the numerous benefits she offers her lovers, as opposed to the judgment awaiting those who reject her (8:36//1:24–33).

The poem is masterfully crafted into three sections. First, the introduction announces Wisdom’s location, addressees, and motivation (8:1–10). Second, the main lesson (8:12–31) consists of two equal parts of ten verses each. In the first part (8:12–21), which can be further divided into two equal and alternating subsections (8:12–16; 17–21; see exposition), Wisdom introduces herself, her character, and her benefits. The second part is the key theological section. Wisdom trumpets her special place with God and her role during Creation (8:22–31). Lastly, in the conclusion, she repeats her admonition to seek her, and pronounces a double blessing on those that do, and a dire warning on those that do not (7:32–36).

Introduction (8:1–10)

“Does not Wisdom call? Does not understanding raise her voice?” (8:1) affirms that Wisdom wants to be heard. She also wants to be found and so locates herself “on the heights,” “beside the way,” “at the crossroads,” etc., all major public places where the masses gather (vv. 2–3). She is both loud and locatable. Only the blind and deaf could miss her.

In verse 4 Wisdom identifies her addressees: “men” (i.e., human beings in general, including women; cf. Ps 141:4; Isa 53:3) and “children of man” (i.e., humanity, without economic, social, or gender distinctions; cf. Deut 32:8; Pss 11:4; 53:3; 58:2). However, in verse 5 it is the “simple ones” (i.e., “the uncommitted”) and “fools” that are specifically commanded to “understand.” It is to these that she offers prudence” (better “shrewdness,” see 1:4) and “sense” (i.e., discernment).

In verses 6–11, she motivates her audience to “hear” and to “take” (or “choose”) her words by listing their flawless (8:6–9) and priceless (8:10–11) character. They are flawless because “all” her words, without exception, are “noble” (i.e., honest); “right” (i.e., in accord with God’s moral standard); “truth” (i.e., reliable); free of “wickedness”; “righteous” (i.e., serve the common good); not “twisted” (i.e., not deceptive), or “crooked” (i.e., not perverse), but “straight” (a synonym for “right”) and “upright.” Wisdom’s flawless “instruction” (i.e., all the proverbs and sayings in the rest of the book) is also priceless (8:10–11; see 3:15).³⁷

Lesson (8:12–31)

A. Wisdom’s Gifts of Statecraft and Wealth

The Lesson’s first half can be further subdivided into two equal halves of five verses each (8:12–16; 17–21). Each subsection begins with “I” (8:12, 17) and forms of the verb māṣāʾ (“to find”). In verse 12 Wisdom “finds knowledge,” thereby setting herself up as the example of the ideal disciple who seeks and finds knowledge; in verse 17, the diligent disciple “finds [Wisdom].” Each subsection follows an alternating pattern as follows:

A. Wisdom’s self-introduction (8:12)

B. Wisdom’s attributes (8:13–14)

C. Wisdom’s gifts of statecraft to rulers (8:15–16)

A’. Wisdom’s self-introduction (8:17)

B’. Wisdom’s benefits (8:18–19)

C’. Wisdom’s gifts of wealth to her lovers (8:20–21)

In verses 12–16 Wisdom proclaims her attributes and relates them specifically to the area of statecraft. All leaders, from the highest to the lowest––“kings,” “rulers,” “princes,” “nobles,” and “all [manner of] earthly judges”³⁸ (8:15–16)––need Wisdom because she embodies the attributes required for successful leadership: “prudence”; “knowledge and discretion,” a hendiadys meaning “versatility”;³⁹ “counsel” (cf. 20:18); “sound wisdom” (i.e., resourcefulness); and “strength” (better “power”; cf. 21:22). Wisdom will share all of her attributes with those who embrace her.

While essential to leadership, however, these attributes are morally neutral and can be exercised either to good or evil ends. To guard against their misuse, verse 13a inserts the summary statement “the fear of the Lord is hatred of evil” and then enumerates the evil that is hated in a logical progression from “pride and arrogance,” which abhor God’s authority, to embracing an “evil” lifestyle, to justifying it by “perverted speech” (13b, c). The logical progression of verse 13 is especially applicable to leaders, all of whom are vulnerable to the temptations of pride and arrogance. If they give in, they will become wicked leaders who justify their evil with lies. In contrast, Wisdom’s attributes will enable leaders to “decree what is just” (8:15), a metonymy for making good and beneficial decrees.

Verses 17–21 are framed by the phrase “those who love me” (8:17, 21), which succinctly summarizes the precondition for receiving Wisdom’s extraordinary material benefits. This subsection can be diagrammed chiastically:

A. Wisdom loves those who love her (17)

B. Wisdom’s material benefits comport with righteousness (18)

X. Wisdom’s caution: her profit is better than all earthly treasure (19)

B’. Wisdom herself walks in righteousness (20)

A’. Wisdom rewards those who love her (21)

A, A’: “Those who love me,” see 4:6 ff. One must love wisdom in order to pursue it. Admittedly, this is circular, as it takes wisdom to want to pursue wisdom (1:5; 18:15). The prologue aims to prepare the disciple’s heart to desire wisdom, while recognizing that only God can break into the circle and place the love of wisdom in the sinner’s heart (2:6; cf. Jer 17:9; Mark 7:21). Those who pursue Wisdom are richly rewarded. Not only will Wisdom love them back (8:17), but she also will love them concretely by bestowing material wealth upon them (8:21).

B, B’ affirm that wisdom’s wealth makes one both wealthy and honorable. This is so because Wisdom’s treasures are gained and given in righteousness (8:18, 20). “Riches and honor” is probably a hendiadys meaning wealth that brings honor. It is possible to have wealth without honor (11:16b; cf. 10:2; 21:6). Drug cartel bosses are rich but are despised by God and the law-abiding. Wisdom’s wealth is also enduring, because it is obtained righteously by serving the common good (8:18b).

X, the center-point of the chiasm, cautions against pursuing Wisdom merely to gain her rewards. Wisdom, like torah, is in and of herself superior to all worldly treasures (see 8:10–11; 16:16; cf. Pss 19:10; 119:127). In his earthly sojourn Christ lacked earthly prosperity but was rich in wisdom (Matt 13:54; Mark 6:2; Luke 2:40, 52; 2Cor 8:9).

B. Wisdom’s Origin before, and her Delight in, the Creation (8:22–31)

The second half of Wisdom’s lesson is marked by a change from Wisdom being the central figure to “the Lord” as the central figure. This change is significant, as it establishes Wisdom’s nature and relationship to God and to the cosmos, and thus Wisdom’s value to humans.

In reading this ten-verse poem, it is important to remember that Wisdom is a personification of Solomon’s teaching in the Book of Proverbs (see above on 1:20–33, n. 10). The purpose of this poem, therefore, is to transcendentalize Solomon’s teaching so that its importance to humans is underscored.⁴⁰ It does this in three ways. First, it elevates Solomon’s teaching by tracing its origin to a time before the Creation (8:22–26). Second, it fortifies trust in the teaching by noting that Wisdom observed the Creation from start to finish and so knows how it works (8:27–31). And since she knows the Creation comprehensively, she can counsel humans infallibly on how to live in conformity to its divine design. Third, the word “decree” in verses 27 and 29 (glossed “establish” and “limit,” respectively, in the ESV) form a link with verse 15b that points to the function of the poem. Wisdom observed God’s wise decrees whereby he tamed chaos and established an ordered cosmos. Thus, she can counsel rulers to “decree” just laws that will tame anarchy and establish ordered societies (8:15).

Structurally, the poem can be divided into two equal subunits of five verses each. The first subunit portrays Wisdom’s origin before the Creation (8:22–26), the second her presence at, and delight in, the Creation (8:26–31).

A. Wisdom’s Origin before the Creation (8:22–26)

The first subunit establishes Wisdom’s preeminence over Creation by affirming her qualitative and temporal superiority. Wisdom was begotten, not created, long before the cosmos.

Verses 22–26 establish Wisdom’s pre-existence.

The meaning of the Hebrew verb qānānî (8:22; from the root qānâ) glossed “possessed” in ESV and KJV is debated.⁴¹ The verb commonly means “to acquire” or “to purchase” and occurs frequently in the prologue where the disciple is counselled to “acquire” wisdom (1:5; 4:5, 7; and passim). But rendering qānānî with “purchased” in 8:22 is problematic. First, it implies that wisdom was coeval with God; and second, that God did not have wisdom until he purchased it. “Possessed” is an attempt to soften this theological conundrum, but it creates more problems than it solves. Scholars have pointed out another meaning of qānâ based on its use in such passages as Genesis 14:19, 22, Deuteronomy 32:6, and Psalm 139:13, where “to create” rather than “to acquire” makes better sense.⁴² That meaning also makes better sense in 8:22. But more nuance is possible. Based on the parallel verbs “formed” in verses 23 and “birthed” in verses 24 and 25, the best rendering of qānānî in 8:22 appears to be “begat” rather than “created.” This avoids the problematic conclusion that until God “created” wisdom, he lacked it. The metaphor of begetting signifies that, unlike Creation, which exists outside of God, wisdom comes from God’s essential being.⁴³

Verse 24–26 trace Wisdom’s existence to the time before Creation began by using five negative timestamps: “when there were no” (8:24 [2x]), and “before” (8:25–26 [3x]). The word “depths” (8:24) refers to the primeval abyss mentioned in Genesis 1:2. In that case, Wisdom pre-existed the events described in Genesis 1ff. The purpose of establishing Wisdom’s temporal priority over Creation is to establish her gravitas. If Wisdom was present long before the earth existed, then her words carry the greatest weight of authority.

B. Wisdom’s Delight in the Creation (8:27–31)

The second subdivision is framed by Wisdom’s claims to be present with God when he created the cosmos: “I was there” (8:27a); “I was beside him” (v. 30a). Wisdom’s presence during Creation further enhances her dignity and authority.

Verses 27–29 celebrate Wisdom’s presence when God limited the chaotic elements to enable life. The metaphors used to describe the process of Creation reveal that the earth exists in a fine balance between chaos and cosmos. The balance is maintained by God’s decrees (8:27, 29) so that chaos does not overrun its boundaries. Such a finely fixed balance enables life to flourish. This cosmological reality serves as the model for human society that maintains itself against anarchy through the Wisdom-taught decrees of its rulers (see 8:15).

Verses 30–31 celebrate Wisdom’s constant presence and exuberance during the process of Creation. She was especially delighted when God created humans, indicating her great love for them. Unfortunately, her love is unrequited by many (see 1:20ff.).

The meaning of the Hebrew word ʾāmôn (8:30a), rendered “master workman” in ESV and NASB, is highly debated.⁴⁴ Possibilities include the nouns “craftsman” or “child,” and the adverbs “faithfully” or “constantly.” The adverbial meanings are derived from the root verb ʾmn (“to be faithful, constant”; cf. ʾāmen, [“truly”], which is also derived from the root ʾmn) and have good lexical support. Most importantly, the idea of constancy accords well with its parallels, “daily” and “always,” in verse 30. Wisdom’s constant presence when humans were created means she knows how they are designed and how they are meant to function in the Creation. Therefore, her advice on how to live must be taken with absolute seriousness.

Conclusion (8:32–36)

In the conclusion Wisdom again addresses her audience with commands to listen followed by motivations for doing so. This time, however, she narrows her address to “the sons” (cf. 8:4–5), since they are the primary audience of the book. Her first words, “And now sons, listen to me” and her final word, “death,” exactly parallel the initial and final words in the conclusion of the father’s last lesson to avoid the adulteress (see 7:24a, 27b). The father’s call to marry wisdom and so avoid the death-dealing adulteress (7:4) is now matched by Wisdom’s call to find her and so find life.

To motivate the sons to obey her call, Wisdom states both the positive and negative effects of responding to her. The imagery of the sons “watching . . . waiting” at Wisdom’s door portrays them as suitors waiting expectantly at the doors of a sought-after maiden. It is the opposite behavior to that of the fool who heads toward the door of the adulteress (5:8; cf. Job 31:9).

In verses 35–36, Wisdom announces that “finding her,” a metaphor for learning and applying the teaching of the book, is a matter of life and death. Those who lack this dedication to the Proverbs will die because they will lack the skills to avoid the numerous dangers hidden in life.

The final unit of the Prologue is an allegory on the reality that in life one must choose to follow either wisdom or folly. This reality is allegorized as two rival banquets, one held by Dame Wisdom at her house, the other by Woman Folly at her house. Each patroness invites the uncommitted to attend her respective feast. Those that accept the invitation and dine at Wisdom’s banquet will live. Those that enter Folly’s house will die. Each banquet represents a lifestyle. Attending Wisdom’s banquet represents committing oneself to the fear of the Lord and to learning and living in wisdom. Attending Folly’s banquet represents a lifestyle that rejects God and his wisdom for the pleasures of easy sex and the false security of easy money. In this regard chapter 9 brings to a climax one of the persistent themes of the Prologue, that there are only two ways to live: in wisdom or in folly. There is no third option.

To further develop the allegory, it is possible that Wisdom’s house represents the Prologue (chs. 1–9), and the banquet represents the following sections of the book (chs. 10–31) on which the uncommitted are invited to feast. The house is complete, and the banquet is prepared. Wisdom’s messengers (i.e., the sages) have gone out to call the uncommitted. It is now up to them to decide whether they will feast or not.⁴⁵ Jesus’s parable of the Great Supper in Luke 14:15ff and Matthew 21:1–4 possibly reflects Proverbs 9:1–6.

Structurally, the unit consists of three sections of six verses each. The first and third sections (9:1–6, 13–18) present the rival banquets and invitations of Wisdom and Folly in almost identical terms (see below). The intervening section (8:7–12) functions as a caveat explaining why the wicked are not invited to Wisdom’s banquet.

The Rival Invitations of Wisdom and Folly:⁴⁶

	Wisdom	Folly
1. Preparation of the Meal i. Introduction of hostesses 1a 13a ii. Location 3b 14b iii.Call to attend	1a 3b 3a	13a 14b 15a
2. Invitation i. Invitation to the uncommitted ii. Invitation to the senseless iii. Offer of symbolic food	4a 4b 5	16a 16b 17
3. Conclusion: Life or Death	6	18

 

It is important to note here that although the sage presents the invitations of Wisdom and Folly in parallel fashion, in many subtle ways he points the reader to the superiority of Wisdom’s feast over that of Folly. See the exposition for details.

Wisdom’s Invitation to the Uncommitted (9:1–6)

Industrious Wisdom, a personification of Solomon’s teaching in the Book of Proverbs, builds herself a seven-pillared house (cf. 14:1). In contrast, Folly merely “sits” at her house (8:14a). Seven is symbolic of divine perfection and, in practical terms, would indicate a large house, suggesting that it can accommodate all who choose to attend. Numerous interpretations have been offered for what the seven pillars represent: the seven planets; the seven sages of the pre-flood era; the seven gifts of the Spirit; the seven sacraments of the Church; and more. One that is more tenable suggests the pillars represent the seven sections of Proverbs. All, however, are speculative.

Having built her lavish house, Wisdom prepares a lavish banquet of meat and wine (8:2 NIV). Symbolically, Wisdom’s “meat” and “wine” represent Solomon’s teachings that both nourish the body and gladden the heart. In contrast, Folly’s meal consists of mere water and bread (8:17). A banquet requires guests, and well-organized Wisdom sends out her “young women” (i.e., the sages; cf. Matt 22:1–14; Luke 14:15–24) to invite the “uncommitted” (petî) and “those who lack sense” (ḥăsar-lēb; see 7:7) to “turn” (i.e., repent of their noncommitment to wisdom) and dine on her food (8:4–5). Verse 6 explicates the meaning of the metaphor of turning to dine at Wisdom’s table, namely, abandoning the state of noncommitment to wisdom and living in the way of insight.

Wisdom’s Rejection of Mockers (9:7–12)

This subunit, an interlude added by the sage and framed by references to the “scoffer” and the “wise” (9:7–8, 12), explains why Wisdom does not invite mockers. The section teaches the important point that some will never respond to wisdom, and trying to teach them will result in harm to the teacher (9:7–9). It also describes the consequences to the disciple of being wise or wicked (9:11–12).

Verses 7–8 are linked by the character of the scoffer. Verse 7 describes his response to those who try to correct him, and verse 8 concludes by advising the wise not to correct him. The “scoffer” (lēṣ) is the most hardened of fools in the Book of Proverbs. He is proud and arrogant (21:24), hates wisdom, and will abuse those who try to teach it to him. He is irredeemable and, according to Isaiah 29:20, will be destroyed by the Lord. The command to correct one’s neighbor in Leviticus 19:17 must be balanced by 9:7–8. One must first assay the character of the neighbor before attempting correction.

Verse 9 contrasts the scoffer’s response to instruction with that of the wise. Giving “instruction”⁴⁷ to the wise, who by definition are teachable, yields great reward, as it will increase their “learning” (i.e., wisdom; cf. Ps 141:5). The verse implies that even the wise must continually grow in wisdom (see Prov 1:5).

Verse 10 reasserts the theological foundation of the book (see 1:7). Its placement immediately after the account of the teachability of the wise (9:9) serves to explain the root cause of their wisdom as beginning in the “fear of the Lord.” Unlike the proud and arrogant scoffer, the wise are humble and submit to “the knowledge of (i.e., the revealed will of) the Holy One.”⁴⁸ As a consequence, Wisdom will reward the wise with abundant and long life (9:11; cf. 3:2; 4:10).

The interlude concludes aptly by applying the deed-destiny nexus in relation to the wise and the scoffer (9:12). “If you are wise, you are wise for yourself”; that is, the person who chooses wisdom will be rewarded with wisdom. In contrast, those who choose to scoff will bear the consequences of that choice.

Folly’s Invitation to the Uncommitted (9:13–18)

Surprisingly, the last speech in the Prologue is given not to Wisdom but to Folly. This conforms to reality. In the marketplace of life, Wisdom and Folly both compete for the hearts of humans, but often it is Folly’s voice that seems loudest and most appealing. This makes the choice between them that more crucial, and that more difficult. As the reader reaches the end of the Prologue, it is Folly’s voice that reverberates the loudest since she is the one who speaks last. This makes the decision to proceed into the rest of the book, which represents Wisdom’s banquet, difficult, but realistic.

The description of Woman Folly in 9:13–18 connects her to the major Prologue character of the adulteress: both are married (7:19//9:17); both are “loud” (hōmiyyâ; 7:11//9:13a), both are uncommitted (5:6//9:13a), both use words to tempt (2:16; 5:20; 6:24; 7:7//9:15–16), and both are deadly (2:18–19; 5:24; 6:26; 7:27//9:18).

Lazy Folly, who “sits at the door of her house,” contrasts sharply with hardworking Wisdom (vv. 1–3). How Folly has a house without building one is not explained, nor is how she worked to prepare her banquet. Instead, Folly merely sits and calls. The implication is that her offer is so tempting that all she has to do is call and people will fall for it. “On the highest places in town” means that where Wisdom is (see 9:3a), there also is Folly, making the choice of Wisdom more difficult. Folly yells to “those who are passing by” (i.e., those going about their own business). Even if people are not seeking Folly, Folly is seeking them. Those “going straight on their way” may represent the wise. In that case, Folly’s call is a test of their commitment to Wisdom.

Folly’s invitation is stated in the form of a proverb:

“Stolen water is sweet,

and bread eaten in secret is pleasant.” (9:17)

In 5:15–18, water was a metaphor for sexual satisfaction. “Stolen water” refers to adulterous sexual liaisons. That it is “sweet” is partly true, as sex, even illicit, is pleasurable and forms the most potent part of its temptation. The proverb’s falsity lies in the fact, repeated in the Prologue, that adultery leads to death (2:19; 5:5; 6:29; 7:23; see 7:18). “Bread eaten in secret” is a parallel reference to illicit sexual satisfaction.

In verse 18, the sage enters the stage and provides the authoritative perspective on Folly’s invitation. “He (the uncommitted) does not know” because he lacks the insight Wisdom provides, that far from being a sexual haven, Folly’s house is filled with cadavers, because far from being a den of sensuality, her house is the grave. To accept her invitation is to forfeit one’s life.

The grim conclusion to the Prologue again confirms the Prologue’s repeated idea that choosing Wisdom is a matter of life and death.

This section, demarcated from the previous one by the title “the proverbs of Solomon” (10:1a; cf. 1:1), consists of the short, pithy, sentence sayings that make up the bulk of the book. Section II will be supplemented by Section V (chs. 25–29). Section II contains 375 of the 3,000 proverbs Solomon coined (1Kgs 4:32). Interestingly, the number 375 is the numerical value of the consonants in Solomon’s Hebrew name.

As stated in the Introduction, the proverbs in Section II and Section V are not a haphazard collection of individual sayings but are organized into clusters based on topics, themes, literary patterns, and other poetic devices (e.g., the appearance of the keyword “fool” in every verse of 26:1–12, except verse 2).⁴⁹ Thus, while each proverb can be interpreted independently, it may also have a greater meaning when it is interpreted in the context of the collection into which it has been placed.

This section, made up of antithetic proverbs (“but” in the B verset), is framed by the inclusio:

“Wise son . . . Foolish son . . .” (10:1bc)

“. . . Wise son . . . Shameful son” (10:5)

Its theme is that the family’s psychological, spiritual, and economic health depend on whether the children are wise or foolish, righteous or wicked.

Verse 1bc states the contrasting impact wise and foolish sons have upon their parents’ psychological health. “A wise son” is one who has fulfilled the motto of the book (1:7) and the conditions of 2:1–4. “A foolish son” has rejected wisdom and so lives with no attention to the deed-destiny nexus. The proverb presupposes that children normally desire to please their parents. If, however, that presupposition is absent, then the proverb loses its potency.

Verse 2 contrasts wealth obtained by wickedness (i.e., by disadvantaging others to advantage self) with righteousness that disadvantages self to advantage others. The former does not profit because, even though it may grant temporary security, it will not protect from eschatological judgment. Righteousness, however, leads to eternal life. The point of the proverb is not that one cannot be wealthy and righteous, or poor and wicked. The point is that eternal security comes from being righteous, not wicked (see Luke 12:13–21).

Verse 3, at the center of the section, provides the theological rationale for the paradox of verse 2. Those who deny themselves to serve others ought to suffer want, and those who enrich themselves ought to be secure. But God “does not let go hungry the appetite (nepeš) of the righteous” (my translation). Nepeš, often rendered “soul,” refers to one’s driving passion. In the case of the righteous, their driving passion is for God (see Ps 42:1). And God will satisfy it with eternal life. In contrast, those who gained by abusing others will have their “craving,” a metonymy for their wealth, stripped off, leaving them exposed to God’s judgment. The proverb teaches that righteousness is not only the son’s most important spiritual-moral characteristic but also what will most safeguard the family.⁵⁰

Having established the priority of righteousness, verses 4 and 5 advise on how to increase the family’s wealth: through diligence (v. 4) exercised at the optimal time (v. 5). The wise son possesses both a good work ethic and a good sense of timing. Work done at the wrong time is useless. Sometimes students who have slacked off the whole semester and have failed will implore me to provide them with additional assignments that they promise to complete in record time. I have no doubt that they would work diligently to complete them, but, unfortunately, I must tell them that the time to apply their diligence has passed. The ant displays the wisdom of verses 4–5 when it works hard during summer, the optimal time, to gather food (6:8; 30:25). If it went out to work in winter, it would die.

This unit of nine verses is carefully arranged into two subunits of antithetical proverbs (10:6–9; 11–14) around a core synthetic proverb (“and” in verset B; 10:10).⁵¹ Every proverb of the unit places the righteous/wise in verset A, and the wicked/fool in verset B. The exception is verse 10, which features inferior characters in both versets. In addition, the first proverb of each subunit has precisely the same B verset: “But violence covers the mouth of the wicked” (10:6b; 11b).

Seven references to the organs of speech (“mouth,” “lips”) reveal the unit’s topic: the power of speech. The first subunit reveals the effects of speech on self (10:6–9); the second, the effect of speech on others (10:11–14). The core proverb reverses the pattern: not only do both of its versets feature inferior characters, but 10:10a reveals the effects of bad communication on others, and 10:10b its negative effect on self.

Subunit 1: Effects of Speech on Self (10:6–9)

In the Hebrew text, the versets of verse 6 are concentrically arranged so that their subject and predicate are clearly discerned:

10:6a A. Blessings

B. (for)

C. the head of the righteous

10:6b            C’. the mouth of the wicked

B’. covers up

A’. Violence

The parallelism reveals that “violence,” the antithetic parallel to “blessings,” not “mouth of the wicked,” as in ESV, is the subject of 10:6b. God’s blessing is his empowerment to overcome obstacles and produce progeny and prosperity. The plural “blessings” suggests abundance. Verset A is probably referring to the blessings the community invokes upon the righteous (singular) for his selfless service (see 10:7). Nevertheless, it is God who answers their prayers and grants the blessings. In contrast, the wicked damage the community with their “mouth” (i.e., speech), and, in a quid pro quo fashion, their harmful words return to “cover” (i.e., overwhelm)⁵² them, a metaphor signifying their destruction. The uneven parallelism between the singular righteous person and plural wicked may reflect the reality that the righteous are always a remnant within a community.

Verse 7 affirms that even after the righteous die, their memory will be honored because the community will fondly remember all the good they did (cf. Ps 112:6; but contrast Eccl 1:11; Job 14:13–14). In contrast, the “name” (i.e., memory; see Exod 3:15; Ps 97:12) of the wicked will putrefy because the community will have the same reaction when they think of them as people have to a rotting corpse.

Verses 8 and 9 are linked. Their A versets refer to the wise who succeed and their B versets to the wicked who perish. Verse 8 portrays the wise in their fundamental character: they are teachable and so accept the sage’s commands. In contrast, the babbling fool (lit. “fool of lips”) rejects wisdom and will be ruined. Since the fool is identified in respect to his speech, it is his perverse words that ruined him. The ruin could include rejection by the community, discipline, and even execution. To “walk in integrity” is a figure of speech for living a blameless life. A blameless life is also a secure life, because the blameless have no hidden sins or scandals that could erupt to ruin them (see 3:23). In contrast, he who “makes crooked his ways (pl.)” (i.e., practises many twisted schemes; see 2:15) has no security because eventually his schemes will be exposed, and he will be ruined.

Core: Effects of Bad Speech on Others and Self (10:10)

Verse 10, the core proverb, stands out because, first, it is synthetic and not antithetic; second, both versets of verse 10 feature an inferior character, unlike the rest which contrast the righteous/wise with the wicked/fool in their versets; third, the versets of verse 10 chiastically reverse the pattern of the unit as seen in the diagram below:

“Winks the eye” refers to malicious communication such as is practised by the worthless person in 6:13 (cf. 16:30; Ps 35:19). Such a person “causes trouble” for others. The babbling fool, however, brings trouble upon himself (see 10:8b). The source of the fool’s trouble is unnamed. Either God directly, or the community under God’s hand, will inflict severe, irreparable damage upon both fools.

Subunit 2: Effects of Speech on Others (10:11–14)

Verse 11. “The mouth of the righteous” (10:11a) refers to the gracious, honest, and beneficial speech of those who serve others. Such speech is a “fountain of life” because it attracts listeners to its life-giving message, as a desert spring draws the thirsty to its life-sustaining water. In contrast, the hypocritical speech of the wicked, who are always seeking to enrich themselves, will suck the life out of those who listen to them (10:11b). The teaching of the wise and the fear of the Lord are also said to be a fountain of life (see 13:14; 14:27).

Verse 12 contrasts two ways of responding to wrongs. “Hatred” personifies the vengeance-seeking victim. “Love” personifies the forgiving victim. The former “stirs up strife” by publicly exposing the offender and whipping up the community into a frenzy against him. One can well imagine a lynch mob forming to mete out street justice. On the other hand, love, at great cost to self, “covers all offenses” (i.e., forgives the sin, absorbs the cost, and does not speak of it to others). Paul’s challenge to the Corinthian brother who was about to sue another brother in public court for defrauding him well illustrates the point of this proverb: “why not rather suffer the wrong?” (1Cor 6:7; cf. Jas 5:20; 1Pet 4:8). The application of this proverb is especially relevant in today’s culture where the use of mass media enables people to easily expose the faults of others.

Verse 13 contrasts an implied humble person who listens to wise teachers and so is corrected against the senseless who will not listen and so has to be physically disciplined. “Him who has understanding” refers to a person with discernment. “On the lips” (i.e., the speech) of such a person wisdom is found, to which the teachable (implied) pay attention and so receive correction. But the senseless reject the wise. Only physical discipline will correct them (see 13:24; 19:29; 22:15; 26:3; 29:15).

Verse 14 contrasts the wise and the fool by how their speech affects the community. The wise “lay up (a metaphor for memorizing) knowledge.” Wisdom is ready on their lips when needed. Verset B gives an example of when it may be needed. “The lips (i.e., speech) of a fool bring ruin near” refers to the fool’s reckless speech that threatens to ruin community harmony. When that happens, the wise will speak their knowledge into the situation, undo the fool’s damage, and restore the peace of the community. This proverb is an illustration of how wise speech is a fountain of life (10:12a).

Verses 15–16 are linked by the topic of wealth. Verse 15 explains that danger lurks both in having and in not having wealth. The Hebrew ʿāšîr, rendered “rich man,” is virtually a technical term in the Book of Proverbs for someone who has wealth and puts his confidence in his wealth instead of in God (14:20; 18:11, 23; 22:2, 7, 16; 28:6, 11). To such a person wealth is a fortress because he thinks his money will solve any problem life throws at him. However, as the verbatim parallel in 18:11 shows, this security is false because it is imaginary. Yet poverty is not the answer. The poor live in constant terror because they have no resources to safeguard them from life’s hardships.

Verse 16 clarifies where true security lies, namely, in pursuing righteousness, because “the wages (or “reward”) of the righteous” is “[eternal] life.” Only God can grant this reward. In contrast, the wicked who enriched themselves by exploiting others will find that their riches lead them to “sin,” a metonymy of cause for the result of eternal death (see Rom 6:23; cf. Ps 49).

This section on the powerful effect of one’s speech on others is introduced by verse 17, which teaches that one’s choice to follow or not follow wisdom has eternal consequences for others. “One who keeps instruction (i.e., one who practices the book’s teachings) is a path to life” (my trans.).⁵³ The disciple’s decision to follow wisdom will transform him into a source of eternal life for others. By contrast, the fool who rejects the way of wisdom destroys both himself and others.

Verses 18–19 are linked by the characteristics of speech displayed by the fool and the wise. According to verse 18, the fool’s misanthropy leads him to slander others, and then he lies to cover it up. Verse 19 is a warning against talking too much. “Transgression is not lacking” is a litotes (an understatement using the negative) indicating that sin becomes abundant the more one talks. The prudent know this and so keep their conversations short.

Verses 20 parallels “tongue” in verset A with “heart” in verset B, suggesting their connection. The tongue (i.e., speech) reveals the heart (i.e., character). The connection means that both organs apply to the “righteous” and the “wicked.” “Choice silver” is silver refined of its impurities and therefore prized. When used to signify the speech of the righteous, it means that their speech is highly prized by others because it is pure (i.e., free of lies and deceit). In contrast, the heart of the wicked produces speech that is dishonest and deceitful and so useless to all.

The value of the righteous person’s speech to others is illustrated in verse 21: it shepherds (i.e., leads, feeds, protects, heals) many. Nevertheless, the senseless fool, who has no desire for wisdom, rejects the words of the wise and dies. The fool would sooner die than listen to the wise.

This unit continues the contrast between the righteous and the wicked, first in terms of their security in life (10:22–25), and then in terms of their eternal destiny (10:27–30). Verse 26, at the center, deals with a particular type of wicked person, the sluggard.

Verse 22 provides theological balance to verse 4 by asserting that while the righteous, unlike the sluggard, have diligent work habits and so produce prosperity, it is ultimately God who gives wealth; and he gives it without demanding people slave for it (ESV margin). Delitzsch notes that this proverb is a summary of Psalm 127:1–2.⁵⁴ Fox helpfully observes, “The way God grants prosperity is by blessing the work of one’s hands”⁵⁵ (cf. Matt 6:35–33). The proverb is not suggesting that God rewards the lazy.

Verse 23 contrasts what gives pleasure to the wise and the fool. For the latter, it is carrying out wicked schemes against others. The noun śĕḥôq can mean “laughter” or “joke” (Ps 126:2; Job 8:21; Eccl 2:2; 7:3, 6). It can also mean “pleasure, enjoyment” (Eccl 10:19; so NIV, NET, NLT), which fits the context better. “Doing wrong” (zimmâ) includes murder (Hos 6:9), incest (Lev 18:17), adultery (Job 31:11), licentiousness (Lev 19:29), foolish schemes (Prov 24:9), and evil intentions (Prov 21:27). In Judges 20:6, Zimmâ is deemed to be committed against the nation. Contrasted with the fool’s community-destroying pleasure is the practise of the “man of understanding” who takes pleasure in wisdom and uses it to build up the community. “Man of understanding” occurs four other times in Proverbs to describe someone who keeps silent (11:12), goes straight ahead (15:21), has a calm spirit (17:27), and is able to reveal the inner plans of others (20:5).

Verse 24–25 are linked by the deed-destiny nexus in relation to the wicked and the righteous. The “dread” of the wicked refers to the negative consequences of their wicked schemes (see v. 23). Even while they are perpetrating evil, thoughts of the consequences haunt them. Eventually those consequences will catch up with them. What the righteous desire is to see God’s kingdom come, and it will be granted to them (Matt 5:6). In the meantime, they may have to endure while the wicked are in control (Prov 28:28; 29:2b). Verse 25 affirms the destinies of the wicked and the righteous after final judgment. The wicked are obliterated from the land (2:22; Ps 1:4; Rev 21:8) while the righteous are established in it forever.

Verse 26, the center proverb, compares the sluggard to irritants in nature that cause pain and distress. It then draws the lesson that just as irritants must be avoided, so must the sluggard. In the era of the proverbs, being a messenger was a highly significant responsibility. Unreliable messengers could cause irreparable damage to their employers. Employing a sluggard for such important and time-sensitive work would be tantamount to gargling with vinegar and opening the eyes to smoke.

The next four proverbs compare the destiny of the wicked and the righteous.

In verse 27, the “fear of YHWH” (27a) has no matching parallel in verset B, just as the “wicked” in verset B has no parallel in verset A. The parallels are intended to be supplied as follows:

the fear of YHWH (which the righteous have) prolongs life,
but the years of the wicked (who lack fear of YHWH) will be short.

Prolonging life means not only long life but “eternal life” as in verse 30a, while the short years of the wicked not only refer to a shortened lifespan but also to ultimate obliteration, as in verse 25a. The epigrammatic nature of the proverbs means that this proverb does not contain all the truth on the destinies of the righteous and the wicked (cf. Job 21:7–15). It must be held in tension with other proverbs which indicate that the innocent may die young (1:11) and the wicked increase for a while (29:16; Ps 73:4–12).

The hoped-for destiny of the righteous and the wicked is the topic of verse 28. While “hope of the righteous” and “expectation of the wicked” are antithetic parallels, “joy” and “perish” are not, suggesting that the hope of the wicked is for a joy-filled destiny, but it will perish (i.e., be obliterated) even as they are obliterated in the end (11:7). The hope of the righteous, however, will end in joy, because they will remain in the land (2:21; 10:30) and see God (see Matt 5:8; Rev 22:4).

Verses 29–30 are linked by the contrast between the endurance of the righteous and the transience of the wicked. The “way of YHWH” is imagery for God’s governing of the world according to his impeccable ethical standards and includes his determination to bless the righteous and destroy the wicked. To the “blameless” (tōm; see 10:9a), God’s government is a refuge, but to evildoers it spells their doom. The doom of the wicked, and the refuge of the righteous, are spelled out terms of eternity in verse 30. God’s government, denied and rejected now, will eventually triumph over the whole land. In that time the righteous will remain in it while the wicked are removed from it.

Verses 31–32 are framed by the inclusio “mouth” (vv. 31a, 32b). The “righteous” occurs in the A versets and the wicked/perverse in the B versets. In the Hebrew text, each verset begins with an organ of speech: “mouth” (31a), “tongue” (31b), “lips” (32a), “mouth” (32b). The antithetic parallels of “brings forth wisdom” and “will be cut out” are not precise, suggesting the following additions:

The mouth of the righteous brings forth wisdom (and so their words will stand)

but the perverse tongue (that does not bring forth wisdom) will be cut off.

“Brings forth wisdom” refers to speech that benefits the community. God, the implied Agent, will ensure that such speech will do its good work. By contrast, the speech (lit. “tongue”) of the wicked, which hurts the community, will be “cut off,” an image signifying that God will purge wicked speech (and wicked speakers) from his kingdom. Speech is also a revealer of character. The righteous, whose characters are aligned with God’s, say what is morally acceptable to him. The wicked, who despise God and his ways, speak what is twisted.

Verse 1 admonishes the disciple to practise honesty in business or reap God’s judgment. God despises (lit. “abomination of YHWH”) fraudulent business practises, here symbolized by the “false balance.” God takes commerce seriously (20:10, 23; cf. Exod 20:7; Deut 5:11), and to ensure its fair conduct created the standard of honest scales (Prov 16:11) and legislated against their manipulation (Lev 19:36; Deut 25:15). The opposite of what God abominates is what he delights in, namely, “just weight” (i.e., honest business).

Verse 2 moves from honesty in business to honesty of character. “When pride comes” personifies pride—the state of thinking too highly of oneself—as someone the wicked invite for company. However, they get more than they bargained for, because pride brings along “disgrace” (i.e., social failure resulting in shame), and these two conspire to destroy the host. By contrast, the wise remain humble because wisdom teaches them their limits and how to live successfully within those limits. Garrett perceptively observes that verses 1 and 2 implicitly link pride to fraud and humility to honesty: “Sins do not come in isolation but in clusters. Someone who thinks only of self and has no regard for others can easily resort to cheating in business affairs.”⁵⁶

This unit continues the theme of the deed-destiny nexus by connecting the eternal destiny of the righteous and the wicked to their inner dispositions and outer deeds.

Verse 3 contrasts the inner dispositions of the righteous and the wicked and what their respective destinies are. “The integrity of the upright” refers to their inner wholeness that results in blameless actions. Those actions shepherd them successfully through life’s dangers to arrive at their glorious destiny. By contrast the “crookedness” (i.e., twisted lifestyles) of the wicked, whereby they abused others, returns to them to destroy them.

Garrett suggests verse 4 answers verse 1. Since “riches” in verset A is contrasted with “righteousness” in verset B, “riches” must refer to wealth obtained by exploiting others. Those who gained wealth unrighteously (11:1; 10:2) will find that it does not protect them when God unleashes his wrath upon them (cf. 18:11). Those who served God and others, however, will be secure when God judges the wicked.

Verses 5–6 continue the theme of the deed-destiny nexus that righteousness saves and wickedness damns. Verse 6 does not specify from what the righteousness of the upright delivers them. Judging from the parallel, “the treacherous are taken captive,” it may refer to the many deadly traps on the path of life that the wisdom-informed righteous avoid.

Through synonymous parallelism (both versets affirm the same reality), verse 7 emphasizes that when the wicked person expires (mentioned twice), so does his hope of amassing wealth.⁵⁷ The proverb is descriptive, pointing out the grimness and hopelessness of the wicked one’s death in order to motivate the disciple to avoid that lifestyle. But what is it that the wicked hope for? The term ʾônîm, rendered “wealth” in the ESV, is possible (cf. Job 20:10; Hos 12:9), but so is “virility” (Gen 49:3; Hos 12:4), and by extension “progeny.” Wealth seems the best option in light of the context. Whatever hopes the wicked had in amassing and extending their fortunes comes to naught at their death (cf. Luke 12:16–21).

Verse 8 teaches the disciple that when the Lord (the implied Agent of the verb “is delivered”) rescues the righteous from trouble, he places the wicked into their spot. Commentators commonly point to the example of Mordecai who was replaced on the gallows with Haman. An ironic fulfillment of this proverb occurred when the righteous Christ took the place of wicked sinners on the cross (2Cor 5:21; 1Pet 3:18). The proverb is descriptive and based on experience.

Verse 9 is connected to the previous unit (11:1–8) by the catchwords “delivered” and “righteous” (11:8a; 9b). It also introduces the new unit (11:10–15) by the theme of “neighbor” (11:9a; 12b). The proverb asserts that even though the godless person deceives others (lit. “his neighbor”), he will not be able to deceive the “righteous,” because their “knowledge,” a correlative of wisdom, will enable them to discern the danger and avoid it. The proverb reminds the disciple of the protective power of wisdom.

Verses 10–11 form a proverb pair linked by the theme of what blesses and what ruins a city. “When the righteous prosper” refers to God’s blessing of the righteous due to their exceptional piety and communal service. Upon observing this, “the city” (i.e., the community) rejoices because they honor the triumph of morality. The antithetical parallels of verse 11 juxtapose “blessing of the upright” with “mouth (i.e., speech) of the wicked,” suggesting that the former refers to the benedictory speech of the upright that builds up the city. By contrast, the deceitful and exploitive speech of the wicked demolishes the community. The proverb pair aims to motivate the disciple to be righteous, not wicked.

Verses 12–13 are linked by the theme of slander and how the righteous respond to it. When slandered, “the man of understanding” (see 10:23) keeps silent instead of raging. He waits for the right time to speak (12:23; 15:28), even as God does (Isa 42:14), and chooses the right way to speak (Prov 26:4). Verse 13 continues the theme of slander, now defined as gossip (NIV; i.e., exposing another’s secrets). But the trustworthy person (lit. “faithful of spirit”) refuses gossip and so avoids slander.

Verses 14–15 are linked by the theme of the proper use of speech. The two proverbs relate to public and personal matters, respectively, and both involve potentially disastrous situations that are avoided by the prudent use of speech. The couplet teaches that while the wise restrain their speech, they do speak when necessary. Verse 14 affirms that a community needs guidance to survive, and wise counsellors provide it through their discussions, debates, and orations. Verse 15 returns to the folly of becoming surety for a stranger (see comments on 6:1–5). Although speech is not explicitly mentioned, it is implied in the speech-act of “striking hands in pledge.”

This unit is framed by proverbs about the righteous and the foolish woman (11:15, 22).

Verses 16–17 are linked by the theme of the rewards of good and bad character. “A gracious woman” describes a woman who is righteous and wise. She gains what is inestimable and lasting: “honor” (i.e., social esteem). In contrast, “violent men” (i.e., men who abuse their power to serve themselves) gain “riches,” which, though significant, when gained unjustly will not last (10:2) or guarantee security (11:28). In Proverbs, social esteem is better than wealth (22:1); thus, “her ‘grace’ is better than their brute force.”⁵⁸ Matching the gracious woman of verse 16 is the “kind man” in verse 17. Paradoxically, his selfless service of others returns to benefit him. “A cruel man,” however, who purposely victimizes others, will reap the negative consequences of his actions.

A concentric pattern binds verses 18–19:⁵⁹

A. The wicked earns deceptive wages  18a

B. but one who sows righteousness gets a sure reward  18b

B’. Whoever is steadfast in righteousness will live  19a

A’. but he who pursues evil will die  19b

The parallelism of A and A’ connects “deceptive wages” of 11:18a with death (11:19b). The wicked person, who gets wealthy by doing evil, thinks he has done well for himself. In fact, he has earned death. “Sows righteousness” is a metaphor signifying all the self-sacrificial service the righteous do. Such a person gains the highest reward, eternal life.

Verses 20–21 are linked by the theme of God’s moral disposition and actions toward the wicked and the righteous. Verse 20 describes his inner attitude: extreme moral repugnance for the perverse but delight in those who live a blameless life. God’s moral disposition towards people implies that they are accountable to him and must pay for their actions.⁶⁰ His recompense is commensurate with his moral disposition and is “assured” (i.e., certain). The wicked will be punished and die, while the “seed of the righteous” (i.e., “the godly wise”) will be saved from death (11:4, 6, 19; cf. 10:2).

Verse 22 forms an inclusio with verse 16. Its theme is wasted beauty. Just as a beautiful and expensive gold ring is tarnished and destroyed when placed in a pig’s nose that swills in dirt and dung, so too beauty is unfitting in a woman who has rejected wisdom to embrace an evil lifestyle. The ESV renders the Hebrew verb sûr (“to turn away from”) with the preposition “without.” The verb, however, is important, as it implies that she has wilfully abandoned the way of wisdom. The proverb instructs the disciple to prioritize wisdom over beauty when choosing a wife.

The theme of desire (v. 23) and its fulfillment (v. 27) frames the unit, as does the repeated “good.”

Verse 23, an intensification of 10:28, teaches the disciple that one achieves what one hopes for. The righteous who desire what is good (i.e., beneficial to self and others) will achieve “only good” (cf. Pss 23:6; 73:1) for themselves, while the wicked receive what they feared, namely, the wrath of God (cf. v. 4a).

Verses 24–25 trumpet the theme of charity with the paradoxical claim that those who give (lit. “scatter”) gain more and those who withhold lose even what they saved (see 21:26; cf. Ps 112:9). What is to be given is not stated and so includes anything that meets the other’s need.

Verse 26 illustrates the theme of the generous gaining while the miserly lose. The example of the grain merchant who keeps his grain from the market in order to drive up the price is contrasted with the merchant who refuses to enrich himself by such greedy tactics. People curse the former but bless the latter (see 10:6), and God will answer their just requests. Proverbs 3:27 warns the disciple not to withhold good from those to whom it is due.

Verse 27 makes the same point as verse 23.

This unit continues the theme of reward for the righteous and punishment for the wicked with a focus on their certainty.

Verse 28 contrasts those who trust in riches with those who trust in God (i.e., the righteous). The former will fall; the latter flourish. To trust in riches means to put one’s confidence in material gain to protect oneself from danger (cf. v. 4). The proverb is not criticizing wealth when properly obtained. The righteous rich trust in God and use their riches to bless others (see 22:4). Such people will flourish. The simile “like a green leaf” signifies vigorous, abundant life (cf. Ps 1:3) and contrasts with “fall” (i.e., a sudden, violent overthrow).

Verses 29–30 flesh out the fates of the two characters of verse 28. Those who trust in their wealth are fools who end up losing everything and then must sell themselves to the wise to survive, while “the fruit of the righteous” (i.e., their wisdom and generosity) becomes a source of eternal life for others (cf. 3:18).⁶¹

Verse 31 concludes the unit with the affirmation that crime does not pay. Using an “argument from strength” (i.e., from a strong assertion to an equal or stronger assertion), the proverb asserts that if the righteous are “repaid (i.e., punished) on the earth” (i.e., in this life), how much more will the wicked be punished. While the righteous are said to be disciplined “on the earth,” the dimension of the sinner’s punishment is unstated, but it probably intends to contrast the present, remedial discipline the righteous receive (cf. 3:11–12; 1Cor 11:32) and by which they are perfected to inherit the earth, with that of the wicked who are cast out of the land and condemned to eternal death (2:21–22; 10:30).

Chapter 12 continues the contrast between the wise/righteous and the foolish/wicked, this time focusing on their respective speech and actions. The chapter can be divided into two equal units (1–14; 15–28), each of which is introduced by an educational proverb to motivate the son to accept the teachings (12:1, 15), and concluded with a proverb promising rewards to the righteous (12:14, 28). Each unit can be subdivided into smaller units as in the following exposition.

Unit One (12:1–14)

On Being Teachable (12:1–3)

Three proverbs on the importance of being open to character-forming discipline introduce the first unit.

Verse 1 calls the disciple to passionately embrace correction ––“love discipline”––because, even if painful in the short term, it will transform him into one who “loves knowledge.” The contemporary saying “no pain, no gain” applies to the pursuit of wisdom as well. By contrast, the uncorrectable are “stupid” (bāʿar). Bāʿar is derived from the word for “beast, cattle.” When used of a human, it signifies someone who lacks rationality and is indistinguishable from an animal (30:2; cf. Ps 73:22; Dan 4:28–37). In sum, wisdom is what makes one human.⁶²

Verse 2 portrays God’s response to the two characters of verse 1. The teachable, now described as “a good man” (i.e., one who serves others), receives God’s favor (i.e., eternal life; 8:35), while the unteachable, now called “a schemer,” is condemned to eternal death.

Verse 3 views the characters of verse 2 in terms of their durability. The wicked, who for a time live and abuse others, will not endure forever, while the righteous, who serve others even though buffeted, will endure forever.

On the Endurance of the Home (12:4–7)

This subunit is framed by contrasting two kinds of wives (12:1) and the fates of their homes (12:7). Within the frame, two proverbs illustrate the practical life skills of the righteous that benefit others versus the self-serving actions of the wicked that destroy others (12:5–6).

Verse 4 “A valiant wife” (ʾēšet-ḥayil; lit. “woman of strength”; cf. 31:1; Ruth 3:11; ) describes a woman of noble character and extraordinary skill.⁶³ The imagery of “crown” signifies that she brings her husband public honor and empowers him to rule in the community. How she does both will be explained in the final poem of the book (31:10–31). By contrast, the shameful wife destroys her husband from within. The imagery of skeletal “bones” contrasts with the outer “crown” and suggests the husband’s inner wellbeing. The shameful wife saps her husband’s vitality by her incompetence (11:22), unfaithfulness (2:17), and contentiousness (19:13; 21:9, 19). As a result, her husband suffers public ridicule. The proverb is teaching the son the important role a wife plays in his public and personal wellbeing and warning him to marry a wise wife.

Verses 5–6 describe a logical progression. When the wicked make plans and execute them, the righteous step in to deliver the victims. Verse 5 contrasts the righteous and the wicked in terms of how they use their respective skills to affect society. The righteous use their “thoughts” (i.e., plans) to achieve justice in society. The wicked, by contrast, use their “counsels” (i.e., strategies) to deceive people and so take advantage of them. Verse 6 describes the wicked executing their plans through their speech (e.g., 1:8–19; 7:1–27), but the words of the upright counteract them and save the victims. Situations in which the upright counteract the words of the wicked include truthful court testimony, wise counsel, and making just decrees.

Verse 7, like verse 3, teaches the son to be righteous by contrasting the fate of the wicked with that of the righteous. “Overthrown” describes the full and final destruction of the wicked. In contrast, the “house of the righteous will stand” because it is built on the sure foundation of wisdom and righteousness. In Matthew 7:24–27 Jesus likened obeying his words to building a house on a rock-solid foundation.

On the Characteristics of Good Sense (12:8–12)

This subunit begins with a general statement about good sense and the lack of it (12:8), proceeds to illustrate it (12:9–11), and concludes by noting the destinies of those with it and without it (12:12).

Verse 8 makes the general observation that possessing wisdom, in this case the specific quality of “astuteness” (śēkel; or “prudence”), earns one social honor and respect from others. “But one of twisted mind” (i.e., the perverse) earns contempt. The proverb must be balanced by the reality that often apostates praise the wicked (28:4) and despise the righteous (29:27b). In the eschaton this wrong will be righted (Matt 5:11–12; Luke 12:42; 2Cor 10:18).”

Verse 9 illustrates the general principle of verse 8. It also introduces the first “better than” proverb. This proverb type presents a negative situation in each of its versets and requires the reader to choose the better (i.e., lesser) of the two, which is usually presented in verset A. Possessing good sense leads one to live humbly, within one’s means. Society respects this. This is better than pretending to be wealthy while having nothing in an attempt to gain the praise of society. Society sees through the sham and despises such a person.

The antithetical comparisons of verse 10 aim to point out another characteristic of the righteous, namely, their merciful nature. “Mercy” refers to the love of a greater freely granted to a lesser who has no legal claim to that love. If the righteous care for the “life” (nepeš) of their animals, how much more will they care for people? Schipper helpfully notes that this verse is connected to 10:3 by nepeš: “the LORD satisfies the appetites (nepeš) of the righteous.” Thus, “just as the righteous person’s nepeš is refreshed by God, so too should one refresh the nepeš of one’s animals.”⁶⁴ In contrast, “the mercy of the wicked,” a sarcasm, is described as “cruel.” If, presumably, the wicked are cruel to their animals, who would trust them to care for people?

Verse 11 describes yet another characteristic of the sensible: they work at honest jobs and reject get-rich-quick schemes. “Works his field” refers to engagement in any honest labor. Such a person will have plenty of “bread” (i.e., sustenance) because God has arranged the created order to reward diligent work (cf. 10:3; 13:4; 14:23; but see 13:23). By contrast, those lacking wisdom chase after “empty things” (i.e., schemes that promise reward but do not deliver). This proverb is a warning to today’s culture wherein people receive robocalls announcing that they have won the lottery and only need to pay the taxes in order to claim the windfall. Sadly, lacking the safeguard of wisdom (cf. 11:9), many have fallen victim to these scams.

The Hebrew of verse 12 is difficult but understandable. The wicked, who lack internal security due to their rejection of the fear of the LORD, seek it in “the spoil of evildoers”—a reference to their ill-gotten treasures—which they presume will protect them (see 11:4; 18:11). “The root” (i.e., life) of the righteous, however, endures (lit. “will produce”), because their security comes from their fear of God and internalization of wisdom.

Verses 13–14 are connected by the theme of speech. Verse 13 makes the important point that one’s speech has power to destroy oneself if misused. The wicked use speech to trap others but inevitably end up trapping themselves. The righteous, who possess wisdom and insight, see the traps and escape. Verse 14 concludes the first unit by noting two ways in which one can provide for oneself: through speech and through manual labor. The latter is taken for granted; the former is surprising: one’s speech has the power to earn income. The one who speaks wisely will never go hungry.

Unit Two (12:15–28)

The metaphor “way” forms a frame around this unit (12:15, 28), which teaches the disciple the value of good speech (12:16–23) and wise deeds (12:24–27). It is introduced by an educational proverb describing the wise as those who listen to advice and is concluded by a proverb promising eternal life to the righteous.

Verse 15, along with many instances in the Prologue, contrasts the teachable wise and the know-it-all fool according to their response to counsel. The latter reject it; the former embrace it.

Good and Bad Speech (12:16–23)

Proverbs contrasting the fool and the shrewd, arranged concentrically, frame the subunit (12:16, 23).

A. fool (16a)

B. shrewd (16b)

B’. shrewd (23a)

A’. fool (23b)

Verse 16 highlights an important characteristic of the wise: self-control. To be vexed means to be incensed, a dangerous emotion if not restrained. Fools who lack wisdom lack the self-control to restrain their vexation when offended and vent it immediately, with no regard to the collateral damage it causes. The “shrewd” (ʿārûm; ESV: “prudent”), however, ignore an insult because they consider the big picture and the negative consequences of venting their displeasure, and overlook the affront.

Verse 17 traces truth-telling to honest character and lying to a false character. On the surface, the proverb seems banal, stating the obvious. On further examination, however, its profundity emerges. The point is not in the words of the witness, but in his or her character. Thus, in listening to someone, one must seek to penetrate behind their words to their character. Such penetration requires insight, an aspect of wisdom (see v. 1:5b).

Verse 18 teaches that understanding the power of speech to effect both good and evil is a characteristic of the wise, who then use speech only for good. Fools who do not understand this power speak recklessly, and as a result cause havoc in the community. The wise come along and clean up the fools’ mess through their calm and conciliatory speech.

Verse 19 describes the characteristics of truth and lies by contrasting their durability. Truth corresponds to reality and so “is established forever,” a divine passive identifying God as the Agent who ensures its lasting effect. Lies, however, do not comport to facts or reality and so are immediately rejected by God.

Verse 20 contrasts evil-plotters with peace-plotters. The imprecise parallelism of the versets means that the missing elements in each verset must be completed by the other. Thus, evil-plotters have no joy, and peace-plotters have pure hearts. The proverb also teaches that character cannot be separated from actions (see v. 17). Those who plot evil do so because deceit is in their hearts. Those who plot (or counsel) peace do so because (implied) their hearts are pure. They are rewarded with joy.

Verse 21 explains one reason for the joy of the righteous referred to in verse 20b: they know that “No ill befalls the righteous.” The terseness of the proverbs requires this assurance to be understood in an eschatological sense. While the righteous may suffer for a while (see 24:16), in the end they will be vindicated. The wicked, however, have no such promise. They are “filled with trouble,” a metaphor signifying the totality of the harm that will befall them.

The mention of the LORD in verse 22 suggests that he is the Agent who effects the destinies of the righteous and the wicked. Like 11:1, verse 22 contrasts what delights and repulses the Lord. “Lying lips” is a synecdoche for liars whose words deceive, harm, and disadvantage others. They are an abomination to the LORD and so will be destroyed. “Doers of truth” refers to those who habitually speak and act in accordance with God’s ethical standards. They delight him and so will be with him forever.

Verse 23 concludes the unit as it began by contrasting the prudent and the fool, this time in terms of their speech. The fool, lacking wisdom’s self-control, blurts out his folly with no thought of the damage it may do. The wise, who are self-controlled, not proud and so not easily offended (cf. 8:13), carefully consider how, when, and whether they should speak.

Diligence and Idleness Contrasted (12:24–27)

Proverbs contrasting the diligent with the idle, arranged concentrically, frame the unit (12:24, 25) and reveal its theme:

A. diligent . . . (24a)

B. idle . . . (24b)

B’. idle . . . (27a)

A’. diligent . . . (27b)

The meaning of verse 24, which contrasts the work habits of the diligent and the idle, is captured well in Ross’s succinct summary: “[T]he diligent rise to the top and the lazy sink to the bottom.”⁶⁵ Ironically, while those who labor diligently become leaders, the lazy, who diligently avoided labor, will be forced into labor. The Parable of the Prodigal Son (Luke 15:11–16) illustrates this proverb: the son who refused to stay and work the family farm becomes a pig herder for a foreigner.⁶⁶

Verses 25–26 are linked by the idea of the importance of wise friendship. “Anxiety in a person’s heart” refers to deep depression due to losing something essential. Such a person lacks hope and the desire to carry on. Yet a good word from a trustworthy person can relieve the depression. Here “good word” refers to speech that addresses the situation and is spoken at the right time in the right way. The wise have such words (cf. Isa 50:4). Verse 26⁶⁷ cautions the disciple to pick close friends carefully because his eternal destiny could depend on it. Once carefully chosen, close friends can empower one to remain on the path to life. By contrast, the wicked are led astray to death because they lack the help that wise friends offer.

Verse 27, like verse 24, contrasts the diligent and the idle, this time in relation to their sense of self-preservation. The idle lack even the desire to preserve themselves because they are too lazy to catch and cook their food. The proverb assumes that food is available but requires effort to collect and prepare. The idle cannot exert this effort and so risk starvation. The proverb aims to highlight the self-destructive nature of idleness. The diligent, however, catch and prepare their food because they possess the God-given instinct to survive.

Conclusion: Eternal Life for the Righteous (12:28)

Verse 28⁶⁸ promises that those who spend their lives loving God and serving others will be rewarded with abundant life now and eternal life in the eschaton.

The Sources of True Satisfaction (13:1–25)

The keywords “appetite” and “eat” frame this unit (13:2, 25), whose proverbs teach that morally good behavior reaps materially good benefits. Following an educational proverb (13:1), the unit can be subdivided as follows: speech and character (13:2–6); wealth (13:7–11); wisdom’s attributes (13:12–19); and righteousness’ rewards (13:20–25).⁶⁹

Verse 1 sets the tone for the unit by suggesting that the rewards promised are for wise sons who accept correction and not for fools who reject it. One becomes “a wise son” by “listening to” his father’s “instruction” (see comments on 1:2).⁷⁰ The obstinate mocker, by contrast, “does not listen” to correction. Disciplining him will result only in pain and shame to the teacher (9:7). The contrast aims to motivate the son to accept discipline in order to avoid becoming a mocker.

Verses 2–3 are linked by the topic of speech, while verses 5–6 are linked by the topic of character—righteous versus wicked—and its destiny. Verse 4, in the middle, teaches the necessity of good work habits, which the diligent possess and sluggards lack. The key word nepeš, rendered as “appetite, desire,” or “life,” depending on the context, occurs in verses 2, 3 and 4 (2x).

Verse 2a is similar to 12:14a. Wise speakers, who use words to benefit others, are themselves rewarded with spiritual and material good. By contrast, the treacherous, who use speech to harm others, will find harm returning on them.

Verse 3 contrasts the wise and the fool in terms of their control over their mouths. The wise “guards his mouth” by speaking only what is good and beneficial, and so “guards” (i.e., protects) his life (see 21:23). By contrast, the fool who “opens wide his lips” (i.e., speaks without considering the consequences) will be destroyed (see 10:14).

Verse 4 exploits both senses of nepeš (“desire” and “life”) to transition to the topic of good work habits which, in addition to wise speech (v. 3), are also needed to succeed. Sluggards desire good things, but because they refuse to work to obtain them, they end with nothing. The problem is not that people lack proper desire; it is that they lack proper character. The wise character of the diligent, by contrast, propels them to work hard, and so their lives are “fattened” (tĕduššān), an image for being abundantly supplied.

Verses 5–6 are linked by the contrasting characteristics of the righteous and wicked. It is not enough merely to avoid lies. Like God, one must actively despise them. The wicked lack this sense of repulsion towards evil and instead indulge in it, making them loathsome to the righteous. This proverb conflicts with the world’s attitude that honors the wicked and shames the godly. Verse 6 personifies “righteousness” (i.e., the God-honoring, community-serving acts and words of the righteous) as a guardian to the “blameless” (see comments on 10:29). Their open and honest lives are free of sin’s harmful consequences. By contrast, those who commit sin are eventually destroyed by it.

Verse 7 introduces the topic of wealth with a general aphorism warning against being a pretender. On the one hand, the poor fool who pretends to be rich deceives others into thinking he is wise and has reaped wisdom’s rewards and deserves social honor (8:18). On the other, the rich fool pretends to be poor in order to avoid noblesse oblige. According to verse 5, the righteous abhor such lies.

Verse 8 provides a practical view of the advantages of wealth and the disadvantages of poverty. This difficult proverb suggests that those with wealth can be motivated to heed deadly rebukes since they have the means to pay their fines and save themselves. The foolish poor, however, do not heed rebukes because, having nothing, fines have no effect on them. This interpretation takes the word gĕʿārâ in its usual sense of “rebuke, reproof,” as in 13:1b, which corresponds verbatim with verset B, except that “scoffer” is replaced by “poor man.” The proverb shows that the poor can be fools.

Viewed in the context of this unit, the metaphor of “light” in verse 9 signifies wealth as well as life. “Shines brightly” refers to the wealth and wellbeing of the righteous as growing and enduring. In contrast, the lives of the wicked will be snuffed out and their illegally obtained wealth transferred to the righteous (13:22b). The divine passive points to the LORD as the Agent who effects the judgments. By contrasting the dual destinies of the righteous and the wicked, the proverb aims to motivate the son and the uncommitted to the way of righteousness. Job questioned this proverb in his sufferings but proved it true in the end (Job 21:17)

Verse 10 picks up the point of heeding or not heeding reproof in verse 8 and traces it to its root in the individual and its effects on the community. “Pride” (see comments on 8:13) is the root attitude of those who will not heed advice. Their stubborn refusal to fear God and heed wisdom creates strife in the community. In contrast, the humble are those who take advice, accept rebuke, make amends, and contribute to a peaceful community. In sum, pride creates strife, while humility creates shalom.

Verse 11 teaches that lasting wealth is attained the hard way, not by get-rich-quick schemes that promise much for no effort. “Little by little” (lit. “by hand”) refers to wealth gained slowly but steadily through patience, prudence, diligence, and generosity. Such wealth, the product of wisdom’s virtues, will endure and increase. In contrast, those who get rich from “nothingness” (hebel)—a reference to all kinds of illegal and dubious schemes—will find their easy money dwindle away into nothing. The proverb does not claim that wealth cannot be obtained by nefarious methods, only that it will not endure. Once again, the Agent who oversees these effects is God.

This subunit collects several proverbs showcasing different attributes of wisdom and their rewards. The unit’s frame, “desire fulfilled” (13:12b; 19a), summarizes the unit’s theme that heeding wisdom leads to fulfilled hope.

The pairing of verse 12 with 19, and its similarity to 10:28 (cf. 11:7), suggest that it is the emotional states of the wicked and the righteous that are contrasted. “Hope” (i.e., the expectation of good fortune) deferred (i.e., unfulfilled) sickens the heart, the center of life. The result is depression and eventually death (cf. 12:25). By contrast, the desires of the righteous, which are rooted in God’s character and will, are fulfilled. This fulfillment is tantamount to feeding on the “tree of life.” It energizes and motivates the righteous to press on.

Verse 13 traces the root of the psychological conditions of verse 12 to their host’s acceptance or rejection of divine wisdom. “Word” in verset A is narrowed in verset B to “command” and refers to the sage’s inspired teaching in Proverbs (see 2:1; 3:1; 4:4; and passim).

Verse 14 further develops the inspired teaching of the wise in verse 13 by use of the metaphor “fountain of life,” a parallel to “tree of life” (v. 12b). By turning to this life-giving fountain (i.e., Proverbs), one acquires the skills to avoid the many boobytraps hidden in the roadway of life. A variant of this proverbs appears in 14:27, where “fear of the LORD” replaces “teaching of the wise.”

Verse 15, building on verse 14, promises that listening to the teaching of the wise produces “good sense” (or “prudence”; see comments on 1:3 and on 12:8). The righteous wise exercise this skill to benefit themselves and others and win for themselves the favor of God and the respect of humans. By contrast, the life-way of “the treacherous” (see v. 2) “is lasting” (ʾêtān), a deliberate irony (cf. 11:30) that requires the opposite meaning, “is . . . ruin” (see 10:25; 12:3).

Verse 16 showcases another benefit of listening to the teaching of the wise, namely, “prudence” (see comments on 1:4). They understand the deed-destiny nexus. This “knowledge” protects them from danger. By contrast, fools, who lack the skills of wisdom, spread their folly (i.e., let loose their arrogance and ignorance on the community), which rebounds to shame and destroy them.

Verse 17 In the ancient Near East, royal messengers played a vital role in communication. They represented the authority that sent them and were entrusted to carry sensitive and important information.⁷¹ Therefore, they needed to possess high moral character. The “wicked messenger” is not just an incompetent one (e.g., the sluggard of 10:26) but also one who uses his role to benefit himself. “Falls into trouble” may be a pun on both the trouble he causes and the trouble that befalls him. The reliable “envoy,” however, benefits his employer and himself. The proverb aims to form the disciple into a reliable messenger should he become one, or to look for good character when employing one.

Verse 18, the second from the subunit’s end, matches verse 13, the second from its beginning, in affirming the positive and negative results of heeding wisdom. “Poverty and disgrace,” probably a hendiadys meaning disgraceful destitution, come to those who reject wisdom’s discipline. By contrast, those who submit to reproof are richly rewarded. The imprecise parallelism of the versets requires each to be filled in by the other. Thus, the honor earned by those who heed reproof includes wealth.

The concluding proverb, verse 19, recapitulates the immense benefit of fulfilled desire stated in the opening proverb (13:12). The righteous wise—implied because it is the antithetical complement to the “fool” in verset B—who serve God and neighbor reap this reward, which nourishes their souls. By contrast, what fools desire is to do evil (see v. 2), and to stop is unthinkable to them. The imprecise parallelism of the versets suggests that the fool’s addiction to evil poisons his soul.

The final subunit of chapter 13 focuses on wisdom’s rewards. Beginning with an admonition that directly calls the son to become wise by associating with the wise (13:20), the rest of the unit trumpets the benefits that accrue to those that walk the path of wisdom (13:21–25).

In the Hebrew text, verse 20 can be understood either as a prescription (ketiv; NIV) or as a description (qere; ESV). The former is adopted here. The common saying “Tell me who your friends are, and I’ll tell you who you are” states the truism that those with whom we associate help form our character. In that case, this proverb counsels the son to “walk” (i.e., live) in the community, and under the tutelage, of the wise to become wise himself. By contrast, associating with those who reject wisdom will lead to ruin.

Verse 21 again affirms the deed-destiny nexus, this time personifying the destinies of the wicked and the righteous. Sinners (i.e., those who habitually pursue evil) will find evil pursuing them (see 1:10–19), while the righteous, who pursue good (i.e., what is beneficial to the community), will find “good” (i.e., social and material honor; cf. Ps 23:6).

Verse 22 confirms that the material prosperity the righteous receive (13:21) stays with them so that they can pass it on to succeeding generations, while the treasures the sinners accrued by wicked devices are taken from them and transferred to the righteous (Gen 31:9; Pss 49:10; 105:44; Matt 25:28). The proverb aims to encourage the disciple to acquire prosperity wisely, through patience, diligence, honesty, and generosity, and not by get-rich-quick schemes that usually involve fraud and theft.

Verse 23 qualifies the reward of the righteous in verse 21 with an example of when the reward may not appear as expected. The example refers to the situation when God, the implied Agent, has enabled the earth to yield plenty of food for the hardworking poor, but tyrants steal it through injustice.⁷² Here the problem of the poor’s not being unable to make ends meet is not due to a fault in them or in the creation, but to injustice. The proverb corrects an oversimplistic application of the retribution principle (i.e., God rewards the righteous and punishes the wicked).

The first verse of chapter 13 instructed the son to submit to his father’s discipline. Verse 24, the penultimate proverb of the chapter, instructs the father to discipline his son. Acquiring wisdom is much too important to be left to the son’s whims. If he resists or rejects instruction, loving physical discipline must be applied. “Rod” is a metonymy for remedial punishment. Not applying it to a wisdom-resisting son is tantamount to hating him. If acquiring wisdom is a matter of life and death, the father who indulges his child’s resistance is setting him up for death. Conversely, the father who loves his son does not desire his death and so will discipline him to accept wisdom and enter the path of life. Schipper notes, “Even if modern readers may find this disturbing, what is important here is the idea of placing the son on the path of wisdom.”⁷³

The final proverb, verse 25, affirms that the righteous who fed others are now themselves fed to the point of satiation. “Eat” refers to consuming literal food but may be extended metaphorically to spiritual satisfaction due to becoming wise. By contrast, those who enriched themselves by oppressing others will “suffer want,” an image for becoming destitute. God is the unstated Agent of the judgment. The proverb must be viewed in light of the whole, since for a time the wicked may live in plenty while the righteous suffer want (see Ps 73:4).

This section can be divided into six subunits as seen in the exposition.

1. Descriptions of Wisdom and Folly (14:1–7)

Verse 1 contrasts the constructive work of a wise wife with the destructive work of a foolish one. The purpose of the contrast is to warn the son of the important role the wife plays in making a successful home and to ensure that he marries a wise one.⁷⁴ “With her own hands” refers to the foolish wife’s characteristic behaviors, such as sloth, sexual immorality, unteachableness, arrogance, intemperance, and bad speech. “House” means household and includes husband, wife, children, income, and property. A foolish wife will destroy them all.

Fox aptly summarizes verse 2: “One’s conduct is inseparable from his attitude toward God, and the former reveals the latter.”⁷⁵ The evidence that people fear the LORD is that they live lives of uprightness (i.e., live in conformity to God’s moral standards). The evidence that people despise him is that they live perverse lives that habitually reject God’s standards.

Verse 3 warns the son of the power of speech and motivates him to speak wisely. The fool’s speech is characterized by arrogance and pride. “A rod for his back” means that the fool’s speech not only harms others but returns to harm him when the offended community punishes the fool. By contrast, the wise person speaks only what is helpful, timely, and appropriate. The community rewards such a speaker.

Verse 4 encourages the disciple to make prudent investments in sure sources of income. While 12:11 and 28:19 reject investing in get-rich-quick schemes that require no honest labor and little initial expense, this proverb acknowledges the necessity of prudent investing. If one desires abundant harvests that fill the manger, then investing in a bull is wise and necessary. The proverb suggests that if one bull brings an abundant harvest, how much more would many bulls bring? Such an investment does not bypass honest work. Taking care of bulls so that they are healthy and serviceable requires hard labor.

Verse 5 returns to the topic of speech, this time in relation to giving evidence in court, where the stakes are high, and life can hang in the balance. Verbal testimony was critical in a time when there were no forensics to establish facts independently. “Faithful witness” refers to a truth-speaker who is impervious to bribes, threats, or blackmail. A false witness is one who can be manipulated to lie. Such a person puts lives in danger and brings the justice system into disrepute.

Verse 6 teaches the disciple that gaining wisdom is not only a matter of intelligence or diligence, but one must also have the right attitude to it. The arrogant mocker will not humble himself and so never attains wisdom. He seeks wisdom for all the wrong reasons. By contrast, the “man of understanding” (i.e., one with insight; see 10:23) finds knowledge easily. This proverb affirms the paradox that a prior wise attitude is required to gain wisdom (see discussion on 8:17–21).

Verse 7 is the negative complement to 13:20a and adds another reason why fools should be avoided (13:20b). The proverb is strongly prescriptive and commands the son to leave the presence of a fool immediately, as it is impossible to hear any wisdom from him.

2. The Ways of the Wise and the Foolish Contrasted (14:8–15)

Proverbs contrasting the prudent and the foolish frame this unit. Garrett observes that the unit is arranged in a concentric pattern:⁷⁶

A. The prudent and the fools 8

B. Making amends for sin 9

C. Secrets of the heart 10

D. Destruction of the wicked 11

D’. The way of death 12

C’. Secrets of the heart 13

B’. Being repaid for sin 14

A’. The uncommitted and the prudent 15

Verses 8 and 15 summarize the essence of wisdom and contrast it with the essence of folly. The essence of wisdom is the ability to “discern” (hābîn; i.e., “to have insight,” “to know”) one’s “way” (i.e., lifepath). The prudent person understands the deed-destiny nexus and so walks a path that leads to life. By contrast, the folly of fools, which seeks to deceive others, leads to their own deception, as confirmed by the parallel proverb in 14:15. Fools believe that their lifestyle will result in good, but they are self-deceived. Elsewhere, “deceit” is connected to the wicked (12:5), the false witness (12:17), and evildoers (12:20), confirming that fools are all of these.

Verses 9 and 14 confirm that although fools do wrong and refuse to make amends, their own wicked deeds will return to punish them. By contrast the upright make amends for their wrongs, and their good deeds win them favor with God and humans.

Verses 10 and 13 warn the disciple against judging people by outward appearances, since present appearances can be deceptive and the present must be viewed in light of the whole. In the case of complex emotions, apart from God, they are known only to the person experiencing them. Here “heart” refers to the seat of the emotions. “Bitterness . . . joy” (v. 10) is a merism referring to the whole gamut of emotions. Others cannot feel one’s emotions as one feels them, which can lead to being misunderstood. Verse 13 teaches the grim reality that sorrow is the prevailing condition of fallen humanity, though it can be punctuated by moments of joy. This pessimistic proverb must be held in tension with proverbs that teach that the righteous have joy (10:28), life (10:16–17), and hope (23:17).

Verses 11–12 continue the theme of deceptive appearances, this time by teaching that the wicked, who reject divine wisdom and choose their own way, appear to succeed for a time, but their way terminates in eternal death. The proverbs teach the disciple to walk by faith not by sight. “House of the wicked . . . tent of the upright” contrasts the secure domicile of the wicked with the insecure shelter of the righteous. If judged by appearances alone, a house looks more stable than a tent. And yet, because the house is founded on wickedness, it will be annihilated. By contrast, the seemingly insecure tent of the righteous, who love God and serve the community, will remain and flourish. “A way that seems right to a man” (see 16:25) refers to humans evaluating their self-chosen lifepath as the correct one. It contrasts sharply with the lifepath of the wise who fear God and follow his wisdom. The former will lead to death; the latter, by implication, leads to life.

3. The Deeds and Destinies of the Wise and the Foolish Contrasted (14:16–18)

This subunit begins by describing the deeds of the wise and the foolish (14:16) and ends with a description of their respective destinies (14:18).

Verse 16 describes the ideal wise person as one who fears the LORD⁷⁷ and, therefore, turns away from evil (i.e., rejects the behaviors and actions that lead to death; see 3:7; Job 1:1; cf. Job 28:28). By contrast, the fool gets angry with God and his standards and so rejects them. The fool, however, does not discern the deed-destiny nexus and so feels secure in his transgressions. Paul warned the overconfident Corinthians to be cautious lest they fall (1Cor 10:12).

Verse 17 is a rare instance where the contrasting versets both refer to negative characters. Verset A cautions the disciple against being short-tempered, and verset B cautions against being a schemer. The short-fused person “acts foolishly” because his volatile temperament damages others. By contrast the deliberate schemer carefully plots to exploit others. “Is hated” refers to the schemer’s rejection and annihilation by God and the community.

Verse 18 states the resulting destinies of the shrewd and the “the uncommitted” (cf. 1:22). The latter “inherit folly.” Normally, an inheritance brings reward, but in the uncommitted person’s case it brings shame, rejection, and ultimately death. The shrewd, by contrast, are crowned with “knowledge,” the know-how to detect danger, evade it, and arrive safely at their destiny—life.

4. The Social Behavior of the Wise and Foolish Contrasted (14:19–24)

Verse 19 escalates the reward of the shrewd from being crowned with knowledge (v. 18) to the wicked’s bowing before them. The parallelism of the versets matches evil people with the wicked, and good people with the righteous. Paradoxically, the righteous who serve others will have the wicked bow down to them. “At the gates of the righteous” suggests that the righteous are sitting in the seat of judgement. This proverb must be viewed eschatologically (see Matt 19:28; Luke 22:30; 1Cor 6:2; Rev 20:4); until then the righteous may suffer.

Verse 20 states a hard reality of life: the poor lack both wealth and friends, while the rich have an abundance of both. The proverb teaches the disciple the value and vice of wealth. On the one hand, lack of wealth leads to abandonment, while on the other, its abundance attracts sycophants. As Bridges notes, the rich man “has many friends indeed to his money and favour, but few to his interest.”⁷⁸ In sum, both poverty and wealth come with their unique set of problems.

Verse 21 mitigates the problem of the poor in verse 20 by teaching the disciple not to despise and so reject his needy neighbor but to act generously toward him. The type of generosity is not specified but implies whatever is needed (see 3:27–28). The generous person is “blessed” because he epitomizes the kind of person who pleases God and so experiences optimal life (see comments on 3:13–18).

Verse 22 escalates the neighbor-hater (14:21a) from one who fails to meet his neighbors’ needs to one who actively plots evil against them, and the generous person (14:21b) to one who actively plans to do them good. The rhetorical question “Do they not go astray who devise evil?” expects the disciple to exclaim, “Of course they do!” The metaphor “go astray” depicts the evil-plotters as wandering off the good way and into the way of death (12:26). Schipper notes that the mere plotting of evil, even before it is carried out, leads a person astray.⁷⁹ By contrast, those who plan to do good to their neighbors experience God’s steadfast kindness that keeps them on the right path.

Verse 23 describes those who plan good for their neighbors as hard workers who through their efforts gain “profit” (i.e., increase of wealth; see v. 24) by which they can help others and themselves. By contrast, “mere talk” (an idiom meaning words without substance; see 2Kgs 18:20) leads to poverty.

Verse 24 concludes the subunit with its reference to “crown” (14:18). The profit gained by the hardworking wise is specified as material wealth. Such wealth, obtained rightly and not wickedly, “crowns” its possessors by gaining them social honor. By contrast, the pun “the folly of fools brings folly” affirms that those who harm others will themselves be harmed.

5. The Connection of Character and Destiny (14:25–27)

The sayings of this subunit connect two sets of contrasting characteristics with their matching destinies of life or death.

Verse 25 lists the first set of contrasted characteristics: the honest witness verses the liar. The proverb escalates the characters of the true and false witnesses described in verse 5 to the effects of their testimony on the accused. Truth-tellers save the innocent; perjurers condemn them. In Jeremiah 42:5 God is called a truthful witness. For the meaning of verset B, see comments on 3:13–18. The imprecise parallelism between “saves lives” and “is deceitful” suggests that the honest witness rejects lies, tells the truth, and so saves the innocent, but the perjurer lies and so condemns them. This proverb is especially pertinent in today’s culture of “fake news” where one can easily use mass media outlets to spread false information that vilifies and socially destroys others.

Verses 26–27 are linked by the “fear of the LORD,” the second characteristic. Those who fear the LORD (see comments on 1:7) are guaranteed both security and life for themselves and for “their children” who follow their godly example. Schipper suggests that the metaphor “refuge” refers to God as the source of security.⁸⁰ The connection to verse 27 suggests that “refuge” is safety from the “snares of death.” Verse 27 is identical to 13:14, except that “fear of the LORD” replaces its synonym, “the teaching of the wise.”

6. Characteristics of a Righteous Nation (14:28–35)

This subunit on the characteristics of a wise nation is framed by proverbs about the king. Verse 28 affirms that the king needs a multitude of people, and verse 35 that he needs wise servants. A successful nation requires both a wise king and a virtuous people.

Verse 28, by its proximity to verses 26–27, teaches that the king must be characterized above all by the fear of the LORD. “Multitude of people” implies that the king’s fear of the LORD and righteous rule has established a peaceful, stable, and prosperous kingdom (16:12; 28:2; 29:2, 4, 12). These rebound to the king’s “glory” (hadrat; i.e., “splendor,” “majesty”). By contrast, a leader without people, a consequence of his foolish, wicked reign, is ruined. The myriads upon myriads of Christ’s followers testify to his wise, righteous, and glorious reign over the kingdom of God (Rev 5:11–12).

Verses 29–30, following immediately after the proverb about the king, suggest that the characteristic of patience is especially needed in a leader. A “patient” (i.e., “slow to anger”) leader exercises self-mastery over his emotions and actions, which are a hallmark of “understanding” (i.e., competence; cf. 16:32; 19:11). This leadership quality attracts followers. By contrast, an impatient (i.e., short-tempered) leader “exalts folly” (i.e., showcases his stupidity) and loses followers. Verse 30 highlights the virtue of patience by noting its value to a healthy life. But “envy”—functionally equivalent to the short temper in verse 29—has the opposite effect of rotting the bones, a metaphor depicting the psycho-spiritual disintegration of the person leading to eventual death. In sum, serenity saves; envy kills.⁸¹

Verses 31–32 contrast the oppressor of the poor with their benefactor. The former is destined to die; the latter will live forever. Again, the context suggests that the proverb is especially addressing leaders, while not precluding its application to all disciples. Mistreating the poor dishonors God because the poor, as all humans, are made in his image. Dishonoring God invites his wrath. Such people are wicked, and God will ensure that their wickedness rebounds to their destruction (v. 32a). Those who are gracious to the poor accept them as equals and offer them aid. God considers this honoring to him, and they will be rewarded after death with eternal life—the meaning of the figure “refuge . . . in death” (v. 32b).

Verse 33 describes personified Wisdom as resident and dominant within the heart of the discerning. By contrast, Wisdom is present among fools and calls to them (see 1:22), but does not reside in their hearts, since they reject her (1:7b, 24–25). Folly indwells fools (27:22; cf. Eccl 7:9). The proverb implicitly teaches the disciple to desire the indwelling of Wisdom. Today, followers of Christ are indwelt by the Holy Spirit, who is the Spirit of wisdom (Eph 1:16–17).

Verse 34 connects wisdom (v. 33) with its ethical fruit of “righteousness.” Where wisdom is dominant among a people, righteousness (obedience to God’s moral standards) abounds, and when righteousness abounds, the nation is exalted. By contrast, where folly abounds, sin abounds, and the nation is condemned. The proverb teaches the king to ensure that he and the people follow wisdom and so bear the fruit of righteousness. Solomon made his Proverbs available to the public probably with the hope of fulfilling this proverb.

Verse 35 advises the disciple to be a prudent (i.e., wise) servant and not a shameful (i.e., foolish) one, since the state of a nation depended on the quality of its officials. Wise officials will ensure that the people follow wisdom (v. 34). The motivation to be a wise and not a shameful servant is that the former will experience the king’s favor, and the latter his fury.

Proverbs contrasting good and bad speech frame a proverb about the LORD’s superintendence of the moral order (v. 3).

Verse 1 states the observable reality that anger produces anger. The wise, therefore, answer their opponents with a “soft answer” (i.e., one whose content and manner of delivery calms adversaries) without compromising truth. This requires self-control, which the wise possess (17:27). By contrast, a “harsh word” (lit. “painful word”) elicits anger because it inflicts emotional hurt. Following immediately upon a proverb about the king (14:33), this proverb applies especially to leaders. Paul urged Timothy to correct his opponents with gentleness (2Tim 2:22–26).

Verse 2 advises disciples to speak in an attractive manner so that people are drawn to their knowledge (i.e., wisdom) and so are helped (16:24). The proverb implies that how one presents wisdom is important, since even wisdom may be rejected if badly spoken (see v. 1). It does not imply compromising the truth. Fools, by contrast, give no thought to how they express themselves; hence, their speech is folly that bursts out and damages the community.

Verse 3 assures the disciple that the LORD is constantly observing every place and evaluating every person. The proverb’s placement in a unit on good and bad speech suggests it may be warning the disciple to see that his life and words meet with God’s approval.

Verse 4 concludes the section on speech by asserting that speech has the power of life and death over others. The metaphor “tree of life” refers to the therapeutic effects of wise speech and suggests that it can lead people into paradise. By contrast, the twisted speech of the wicked will zombify people by destroying the innermost part of their psyche.

The theme of “correction” frames the unit (15:5b, 12a). The righteous submit to it; the wicked reject it.

Verse 5 calls the disciple to become prudent instead of a fool by paying careful attention to and not despising (i.e., counting as worthless or vile) the father’s “instruction” (i.e., discipline; see 1:3). The proverb states clearly one of the chief characteristics of the fool, namely, unteachability (see 1:7).

Verse 6 contrasts the righteous and the wicked in terms of their earnings. The former amass “much treasure,” a metaphor for abundant provisions. The righteous need this abundance since they use it to help others. “Wages” refers to the results the wicked earn from their fraudulent schemes, namely, trouble (or “calamity,” i.e., death; see 11:19). The apostle Paul taught that the wages of sin is death (Rom 6:23).

Verse 7 provides further contrasts between the righteous and the wicked, here called “the wise” and “fools,” respectively. The former, whose hearts are pure, generously spread far and wide their life-giving knowledge through their wise words. By contrast, the hearts of fools are wicked, and so their speech helps no one. “Lips” and “hearts” are a complementary pair and should be included in both versets.

Verses 8 and 9 form a proverb pair that is connected by key phrases and logic. Both verses contain “abomination to the LORD” and the word “wicked.” They are also logically connected because verse 9 provides the reasons why the LORD rejects the sacrifice of the wicked but accepts the prayers of the righteous: the lifestyle of the former is abhorrent to him, but he loves “the righteous” who fear him and serve others. God does not accept the person because of the sacrifice but accepts the sacrifice because of the person. If one’s life is abhorrent to God, then so is one’s sacrifice, no matter how elaborate. Verse 8 does not pit sacrifices against prayers, since both are part and parcel of true worship, but distributes them between the versets of verse 8 to emphasize that the wicked seek to manipulate God with outward sacrifices but without internal confession and repentance.

Verse 10 bluntly states the consequence of rejecting instruction, namely, eternal death separated from God. In Proverbs all ways (i.e., lifepaths) lead either to (eternal) life or (eternal) death. There is no third option.

Verse 11 escalates the LORD’s omniscience in verse 3 to his observance of the grave (“Sheol”) and the abyss (“Abbadon”), the place of destruction deep within Sheol. The proverb argues from greater to lesser: If God sees into the deepest realms of the grave, how much more does he see into the hearts of earth-dwellers? Verse 11 provides the theological basis for God’s condemnation or acquittal of humans. He who observes the hearts of humans assigns them their final destinies.

The closing proverb, Verse 12, like the opening proverb (v. 5), affirms that the fundamental problem with the fool—here escalated to the worst type of fool, “the scoffer”—is incorrigibility. “Does not like correction” is a litotes meaning “despises it” (see v. 5a). The scoffer’s response is inexcusable because the wise willingly and generously share their wisdom (v. 7).

This unit focuses on the heart’s triumph over difficult circumstances (15:13–17) and climaxes with examples of characters who through their piety and wisdom overcome their circumstances (15:18–19).

Verse 13 teaches that one’s physiological and psychological states are determined by the condition of one’s heart. The proverb teaches the youth to seek after a “glad heart” (i.e., an exuberantly happy psyche), as it is better than a “sorrowful heart” (i.e., a broken psyche). How one achieves a glad heart is stated in verse 14.

Verse 14 states that the wise achieve a glad heart by pursuing wisdom. By synecdoche, “A heart of an understanding person” refers to a wise person. Such a person seeks “knowledge,” a metonymy for the Book of Proverbs. By contrast, fools spout folly, because their hearts are intractably evil (22:15; 27:22). “Mouths of fools” refers to their speech, and “feed on folly” is imagery for fools finding satisfaction by spouting folly. The imprecise parallelism between “heart” in verset A and “mouth” in verset B suggests that the wise who fill their hearts with the knowledge of Proverbs will also speak wisely.

According to verse 15, the condition of one’s heart is more important than one’s material state. Verset A refers to ordinary people who live in continuous and unrelenting miserable socio-economic conditions. Nevertheless, “the cheerful of heart,” a synonym of “glad heart” in verse 13, have “a continual feast” (i.e., live in a constant state of satisfaction). The proverb is teaching that one can triumph over adversity if one’s heart is set on wisdom. The apostle Paul told the Philippian Christians that, though imprisoned, he could rejoice because he had learned that the secret to being content in any circumstance was to rely on the strength of Christ (Phil 4:10–13).

Verses 16–17 are linked by their “better than” form (see comments on 12:9). They teach that a heart set on the “fear of the LORD” and “love” will overcome difficult circumstances. Verse 16 teaches the youth to prioritize piety and wisdom (i.e., the fear of the LORD) over material wealth (see 4:7; 8:19; Ps 37:16). Verse 17 teaches the youth to prioritize love over wealth. “Vegetables” is a synecdoche for a meager meal (v. 16a). “Fattened ox” is a synecdoche for a sumptuous banquet (v. 16b). A modest meal with “love” around the table is preferable to a lavish banquet where the participants loathe each other.

Verses 18–19 form a proverb pair that illustrates how to overcome harsh circumstances with two examples of overcomers: the patient (v. 18) and the upright (v. 19). The patient exercise wisdom to calm the strife caused in the community by hotheads (cf. 12:18; 29:22). This wins them favor with God and the community. The “upright person” who lives according to God’s moral standards is rewarded with a “level highway” (i.e., an obstacle-free life-path). By contrast, sluggards are not overcomers. Their folly leads to a lifestyle that is “like a hedge of thorns” (i.e., a life filled with obstacles and pain).

Forms of the word “joy” (śmḥ; [15:20a; 15:23a]) frame this unit, pointing to its theme of the practical value of learned wisdom. The parents’ joy in a teachable son (v. 20) is escalated to the son’s own joy when he matures into someone who can answer wisely (v. 23). Verse 24 is a janus.

Verse 20, like 10:1, emphasizes the emotional response of parents to teachable and unteachable children. Verset A repeats verbatim 10:1a. Verset B, however, reverses the perspective of 10:1b by focusing on the fool’s response to his mother, namely, that he despises her.⁸² “Foolish man” in verset B is not an exact antithetical parallel to “son” in verset A, suggesting that, from the parents’ point of view, one who has been taught the parents’ godly worldview but rejects it no longer merits the title “son.”

Verse 21 promises that youth who accept their parents’ wisdom will not only make them glad (v. 20) but will also find their own lives headed on a straight pathway to life (see v. 19). Verset A may suggest that one reason why the fool rejects his parents’ wisdom is that for him folly is fun (see 10:23). The imprecise antithetical parallels “is joy” and “walks straight ahead” suggest that the fool’s path is crooked, and the wise son finds folly foul.

Verse 22 is similar to 11:14. While the latter applied to the nation, this proverb generalizes the benefit of collaborating with the wise to any applicable situation. The proverb teaches the disciple that consulting a plurality of wise counsellors eliminates one’s blind spots and biases and will result in more objective and rational decisions that will lead to success.

Verse 23 complements verse 20, by trumpeting the joy the son will experience when, having submitted to the parents’ instruction, he is now able to provide wise answers. “Apt answer” in verset A refers to a verbal response that fits the situation. Its synthetic parallel in verset B, “word in season,” adds the quality of right timing. The wise say the right thing at the right time. The exclamation “how good it is!” invites the son to make his own positive evaluation of the proverb.

In addition to pleasing their parents, walking a straight path, and being able to provide apt answers, Verse 24 adds the benefit of eternal life for the prudent. Their “path of life,” a metaphor for their wise and righteous lifestyle, “leads upwards” and so “away from Sheol” (i.e., the grave). The imagery of travelling up from Sheol cannot mean merely averting an untimely death, for then the path of life would eventually veer down, and life will be swallowed up in death, negating the promise of the proverb.⁸³

This unit is framed by proverbs about the LORD’s judgment of the wicked and his care for the weak and the righteous (15:25; 29).

Verse 25 protects verse 24 from a simplistic reading that righteousness is always rewarded by its implication that until the LORD intervenes, “the proud” (i.e., those who despise God and abuse others) tyrannize the weak—here represented by “the widow”—by seizing their “boundaries” (i.e., their ancestral land). “Tears down the house of” is violent imagery for the LORD’s annihilation of the wicked (cf. 2:22). In tit-for-tat fashion, violent oppressors who build their houses on the proceeds of crime will have those houses demolished. According to 13:22, the righteous will inherit the proceeds of the wicked. The proverb teaches the disciple that if God cares for the widows and avenges their abusers, then so must the disciple (cf. Deut 19:14; Job 24:2–3; Ps 68:5; Isa 1:17; Hos 5:10). Jesus raised the widow of Nain’s son so that he could continue to support his mother (Luke 7:11–17; cf. 1Tim 5:3ff; Jas 1:27).

God’s covenant name, “the LORD,” links verse 26 with verse 25 and gives the rationale for God’s sentence against the proud: he detests them. “The thoughts of the wicked” refers to their plans by which they carry out their villainy. By contrast, “gracious words” (i.e., eloquent speech that benefits the community) are “pure” and therefore acceptable to him.

In context, Verse 27 states the underlying motivation of the wicked (v. 26) for seizing the property of the widow (v. 25), namely, greed for “unjust gain” (bāṣaʿ). In 1:19 the father warns the son to reject bāṣaʿ because it kills those who gain it, a close parallel to “troubles his own household.” “Bribes” (lit. “gifts”) is in parallel with “unjust gain” and suggests a gift given to (or received by) a corrupt official, perhaps a judge, to influence him to sanction the theft of the widow’s property. The proverb teaches that those who “hate” (i.e., categorically reject) such practices will live.

Verses 28–29 are linked by the chiastic pairings of “righteous,” “wicked” // “wicked,” “righteous.” Since righteous people are wise people who possess self-control and the desire to glorify God and help others, they think long and hard about what, how, and when to speak. As a result, God is near to them to hear their prayers. The wicked, however, lack self-control, and so blurt out “evil” (i.e., speech that dishonors God and damages people; see 12:23). Judging from the parallel in verse 29b, “The LORD is far from them” means he rejects their prayers.

This short unit calls disciples to accept wisdom so that they become humble, whole, wise, and intelligent.

Verse 30 encourages youth to accept teachers of wisdom because they bring joy and strength. “Light of the eyes” in verset A is parallel to “good news” (i.e., the wisdom of Proverbs) in verset B and refers to the inner strength and exuberance of the wisdom teacher. Those who accept the teaching of the wise will find their “heart” and “bones”—a merism for their whole person—strengthened and made whole. In the New Testament, Jesus promised that those who welcomed his apostles received him and his Father (Matt 10:40).

Verse 31 continues the encouragement of the youth with the promise that if they submit to the “life–giving reproof” (or “correction”) of their teachers they will “dwell among the wise” (i.e., become wise themselves).

Verse 32 escalates the encouragement by warning the youth that flouting the sages’ “instruction” will lead to death, the end result of “despising oneself” (13:18; cf. 6:23), while submitting to their correction will gain them “sense” (or “intelligence”).

Lastly, Verse 33 teaches the disciple that the key to attaining wisdom is “humility,” the attitude of renouncing self-confidence and self-sufficiency. The proverb equates the “fear of the LORD” in verset A with “humility” in verset B, as also in 22:4, to ensure that humility is grounded in the awe and reverence of God, and not in a mere personality trait. Those who humble themselves to accept the sage’s teaching will be crowned with social and material “honor.”

This unit begins and ends with the concentric pairing of “humans,” “heart” // “heart,” “humans” (vv. 1a // 9b). The divine name YHWH occurs in every verse except verse 8. The theme is God’s sovereignty over human affairs. The unit teaches that while humans are responsible for planning their way, it is ultimately the LORD’s purposes that will be established. The wise learn to live in this tension without jettisoning either their responsibility or God’s supremacy.

Verse 1 adds theological grounding to 15:28 by affirming that it is ultimately God’s superintendence that is responsible for the answers of the wise. “Plans of the heart” refers to thoughts that are carefully pondered. “Answer of the tongue” refers to the verbal response that is right and meets the need, since it is “from the LORD.” The proverb reminds the youth that while they are responsible for thinking carefully before answering, nevertheless it is not their wisdom but God who ultimately ensures the effectiveness of their responses (cf. 1Cor 3:6–7).

Verse 2 continues the theme of verse 1. To sinful humans all their “ways” (i.e., outward patterns of behavior) are “pure in their eyes” (i.e., ethically correct in their opinion). However, God penetrates to discern their “spirits,” (i.e., deepest motives). Therefore, all one can do is commit one’s motives to the LORD and trust him to commend or condemn them. In the Old Testament, the people’s sins are described as “evil in the eyes of the LORD” since, presumably, they were right in their own eyes. The apostle Paul recognized his inability to judge his inner motives and left their judgment to God (1Cor 4:3–5).

Verse 3 draws a practical application from the theological teaching of verses 2–3. Since God is sovereign over human affairs (v. 1) and over human motives (v. 2), one should “commit to him” (lit. “roll onto him”) one’s wise and righteously crafted plans. “Will be established” means such plans will be fruitful. The proverb teaches disciples to depend on God for the success of their good and wise enterprises.

Verse 4 picks up the theme of God’s sovereignty from verses 1–2 and affirms it in the strongest of terms. God orchestrates all things to their appropriate destinies. Verset B illustrates the general statement of verset A with the specific example of the wicked. “For the day of trouble” refers to the time of judgment, when the wicked will be punished. The proverb leaves ambiguous the question of whether God predestines the wicked to do evil so that he can punish them or whether he predestines punishment for those who choose to do evil. If God ensures that the wicked are punished, how much more will he ensure that the righteous are rewarded?

Verse 5 doubles down on the topic of the punishment of the wicked by asserting its certainty.

Verse 6a refers to forgiveness of past sins; verse 6b teaches how to prevent future sin. Here “Steadfast love and kindness” refers to the character of the wise-righteous person, not to God’s nature. God will accept the sacrifices of such persons and forgive them. Israel’s sacrificial system required the participant to possess these characteristics when offering sacrifices. God disdained those who gave offerings without love for God and neighbor (Isa 29:13; cf. Gen 4:3–5). Future sin is avoided by the “fear of the LORD,” which includes fear of his discipline (Ps 32:1–5).

Taken in context, Verse 7 offers another benefit accruing to those who please God by their steadfast love and kindness. Not only does God forgive them (v. 6), but he also makes their enemies seek peace with them (see Gen 20:15; 26:27; 33:4). This proverb is nuanced by the next one.

Verse 8, the only proverb in the unit that does not mention “the LORD,” is deliberately added to qualify the promise of verse 7 by noting that, for a time, the righteous may suffer while their enemies triumph. “A little with righteousness” implies that God does not always immediately reward righteousness, and the disciple will have to endure patiently while the wicked enjoy their unjustly obtained “great revenues.” The proverb is similar to 15:16a but replaces “fear of the LORD” with “righteousness” to suggest that righteousness must be maintained even when divine reward is delayed. In the end, however, God will right this upside-down situation (2:21–22; 11:8; 21:18).

Verse 9 expands the thought of verse 1, from God’s sovereignty over people’s words, to his supremacy over their entire lifespan. The proverb is not denigrating human “planning”—one reason for seeking wisdom is to be able to make good plans (15:22)—but cautions the disciple that God’s superintendence governs all plans and determines the particulars of how or if those plans will take effect.

This unit consists of three proverb pairs. The first is linked by the topic of justice (16:10–11); the second by the topic of the king’s moral sensibilities (16:12–13); and the third by the topic of his emotional sensibilities (16:14–15). The word “king” occurs in all verses except verse 11, which, like verse 8 in the unit on God’s sovereignty (16:1–9), adds a qualification. This section is similar to Psalm 101⁸⁴ and assumes a king who is wise and fears the LORD.

Verse 10 teaches that God grants the king supranatural discernment so that he can give infallible judgments. Elsewhere in the Old Testament, the term “oracle” (qesem) always refers to divination which is forbidden. Here, however, it cannot have that meaning. Its parallel in verset B is “judgment,” suggesting that qesem refers to an inspired verdict. In sum, the proverb teaches that God inspires the king so that “he does not sin” by proclaiming unjust judgements.

Verse 11, the second from the top, like verse 8, the second from the bottom of the previous unit, adds a qualification to the king’s supranatural ability to grant infallible decisions. The king possesses this ability so long as it is God’s standards of justice that the king upholds. By pars pro toto (the part for the whole) the LORD’s “just balance and scales” represents the whole standard of divine justice, consisting of laws and penalties for breaking them. It is this divine standard that the king is tasked with enforcing, and when he does, God will grant him supernatural discernment.

Verse 12 states that in order for the king to establish God’s just order, he, like God, must loathe evil. Where the evil is located is left open. Does the king detest evil in himself or in others? Probably both are intended. To abhor evil is to utterly reject it. The reason why the king must reject evil is stated in verset B: the stability of the “throne,” a metonymy for his rule, depends on it.

Verse 13 provides the positive counterpart to verse 12 by stating what the king loves: honest speech. On the surface this proverb appears to state a banality, but considered more deeply its addition may arise because speaking truth to power is not easy although necessary. This proverb teaches leaders to accept, and not reject, truthful speech, while teaching the leader’s advisors to speak only the truth to them.

Verse 14 warns disciples not to arouse the king’s fury, but if they do, to take steps immediately to appease it. “A king’s wrath” is his response to wrongdoing. It is the “messenger” (i.e., precursor) to his death sentence against the offender. Therefore, the king’s wrath should not be aroused by doing evil. But if it is, then one must take immediate action—before the death sentence is carried out—to appease it by speaking honestly, gently, contritely, and doing whatever is needed to make amends. The Bible has many examples of the wrath of God and of humans being assuaged by wise actions (18:16–33; Exod 32:9–14; Num 25:6–13; 1Sam 25; Matt 18:23–27; Luke 13:6–9).

Instead of provoking the king’s wrath, verse 15 teaches the disciple to desire his favor because it bestows life and prosperity.

This unit of four proverbs teaches that wisdom will protect disciples while its lack will endanger them. The unit is framed by two “better than” proverbs (16; 19) that trumpet the theme that wisdom is better than material treasure, and humility, wisdom’s fruit, is better than pride.

Verse 16, like 4:5, 7, teaches that wisdom and understanding provide the skills to avoid life’s deadly traps. Mere gold and silver do not; therefore, wisdom is better. The proverb is not pitting wisdom against wealth, as possessing both is possible (8:18); but relative to wealth, wisdom is superior, for its profit far outstrips the profits of material wealth.

In context, verse 17 presents one of the effects of being wise (v. 16), namely, avoiding sin by walking on the highway. In ancient Israel, highways were built up above the surrounding dirt and muck. Wisdom enables “the upright” (i.e., those who live according to God’s standards; cf. 1:3) to stay on the highway so that they do not veer into the surrounding muck. Verset B escalates the protection of wisdom from enabling the avoidance of evil to protection of life.

Verse 18, using synonymous parallelism, presents the destructive effect of the lack of wisdom. The proud lack divine wisdom and are not upright. Their lack of the fear of the LORD and resultant arrogant, self-centered behaviors cause their destruction. The implied Agent who effects the destruction is God.

Verse 19 applies the message of verse 18 to disciples by cautioning them not to take the option of joining the proud, no matter how bad their situation becomes. Using the “better than” framework, the proverb presents two negative situations and encourages the disciple to choose the lesser of the two. “Lowly of spirit” here means to be poor. Being “proud” here includes having “spoil” (i.e., the illegally obtained goods of others) and is a worse condition than poverty, because though the proud have spoil, they are headed to destruction.

The word “good” (v. 20) trumpets this unit’s theme, namely, the good that results from wise speech.

Verse 20 teaches disciples that the road to becoming wise speakers themselves begins with submitting to the words of the wise. “Discover good” means to attain the benefit of wisdom, which in the context of the unit refers to wise speech. Verset B grounds the teaching of the wise in the LORD who inspires wisdom and empowers its teachers (cf. 2:6). To heed the sage, therefore, is tantamount to trusting in the LORD. Such disciples are “blessed” (i.e., to be envied).

Verse 21 states the first result of wise speech, namely, persuading others to the good and so earning their respect. “Wise of heart” (verset A) and “sweetness of speech” (verset B) are imprecise parallels and indicate that the former is the source of the latter. “Sweetness of speech” refers to its truthfulness and elegance. Such speech is persuasive, and the speakers are “called” (i.e., labelled) discerning” by the community.

Verse 22 escalates the good that wise speakers achieve. Not only do they persuade others (v. 21), but they also become a source of life to themselves and others. In context, “astuteness” (or prudence) refers to prudent speech. Those who have it save not only themselves, but as the parallel suggests, others too. The “instruction of fools” is sarcasm for the words and actions of those who despise wisdom (1:7). Their instruction “is folly” because instead of benefiting others, it imperils them.

Verse 23 identifies the source of wise speech as the wise person’s heart (cf. 4:23). It teaches disciples to cultivate wise hearts by submitting to the discipline of wisdom in order to become wise speakers (see 2:1–4).

Verse 24 compares “gracious speech” (see 15:26) to honey, which uniquely combines the properties of sweetness and healing. The sweetness of honey attracts people; its medicinal properties heal them. Similarly, the eloquence of wise speech attracts listeners, and its truth-content restores their “soul . . . and . . . body,” a merism indicating their whole selves.

This unit focuses on destructive behaviors that ruin both the person and the community. Verse 26 may be an exception, but it is possible to apply it in a negative way.

Verse 25 is an exact duplicate of 14:12. Its warning to choose one’s life-path carefully, since the wrong choice will lead to eternal destruction, functions to introduce the unit on destructive behaviors.

Verse 26 makes a universal observation that people are driven to work by their “appetite” (nepeš; i.e., their passions and desires). According to Fox, one’s own appetite functions as a taskmaster that drives one to hard labor.⁸⁵ The diligent are motivated by their appetites to work hard to provide for themselves; sluggards, by contrast, feel the drive but choose not to work and so starve (13:14). The proverb is open to several interpretations, including negative ones where the powerful exploit the weak through the latter’s desire to survive (cf. Jas 5:1–6), and the thief whose hunger propels him to crime (6:30).

Verses 27–30 list three types of scoundrels who disrupt the community with their antisocial behaviors and perverse speech.⁸⁶ The list echoes 6:12–19. The first reprobate is the “worthless man” (v. 27; better “wicked scoundrel” [NET]) who “plots” (i.e., carefully prepares) evil and then unleashes it on others with his mouth. “Like a scorching fire” likens his mouth to a flamethrower that severely harms others. The “dishonest man,” of which the “whisperer” (i.e., gossiper) is a type (v. 28), inflicts damage on others by speaking behind their backs. The lies, if believed, can bring suspicion, tension, and separation to the closest of relationships. An example of this is the Serpent’s lies about God that alienated the original human pair from their God and from each other. The final scoundrel is the “man of violence” (v. 29), who talks others into joining him in his crimes (see 1:11–14). Those who join end up on a lifepath that is “not good,” a litotes meaning deadly. Verse 30 portrays how the violent person carries out his bloody plan by collaborating with an accomplice through physical gestures (cf. 6:13).

The word “Crown” and the topic of old age frames this unit (16:31; 17:6). The proverbs within the frame describe the characteristics of righteousness.

Verse 31 teaches the young disciple to view the godly aged as possessing dignity, splendor, and authority and therefore, implicitly, as not to be ignored, cast aside, or denied the acclaimed status of a sage. “Grey hair” is a metonymy for old age that carries with it the beauty and authority of a “glorious crown” (cf. 20:29). Since chronological age by itself does not signify wisdom—even Solomon became a fool as he aged—verset B adds the qualification that it is only the aged who have lived a life of righteousness that deserve the crown. The proverb is tempered by Ecclesiastes 12:1–8, where the many infirmities of old age are listed.

In context, verse 32 probably specifies how the aged achieved their glorious crown, namely, by patiently controlling their emotions and desires. Such patience is a hallmark of wisdom (14:29; 15:18; 19:11; 25:15, 28). The proverb teaches that the power that conquers one’s own wild passions is more desirable than the power a champion exerts to conquer cities. Paul taught the Galatian Christians that the power to conquer one’s passions comes from the Holy Spirit (Gal 5:16–24; cf. 2Cor 13:4).

Verse 33 qualifies the control the patient exercise by pointing to God’s overall control of all events (see v. 1). The “lot” was an instrument utilized in making decisions because of its impartiality when randomly “cast into the lap.” Yet there is nothing random about the lot’s use, since every one of its uses reveals only God’s decision. The early church utilized this method to choose the apostle who would succeed Judas (Acts 1:26). However, after the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Acts 2:1–5), the practise is not mentioned.

Chapter 17

Verse 1 teaches that peace is better than strife, even if the former is accompanied by scarcity and the latter with plenty. Of course, both states are undesirable, as the ideal situation would be peace with plenty. The proverb, however, assumes that the ideal state is rare, and in that case, one needs to choose the better of two bad situations.

Verse 2 trumpets the value of astuteness (“wise dealing”) by noting that an astute slave could end up inheriting the master’s estate instead of a foolish son. The proverb presents a normally implausible scenario (19:10; 30:22) to make the point that when it comes to leadership, wise character trumps natural laws of inheritance. An example of this proverb may be Jacob’s bestowing of leadership upon fourth-born Judah instead of first-born Reuben (see Gen 49:3–4, 8–12).

Verse 3 warns the disciple that, as the crucible heats up natural ore to the point where the precious metals melt and separate from the dross, so God tests people with hard trials to determine the purity of their hearts. The proverb assumes that God will reward the pure and reject the impure. The proverb implicitly encourages the disciple to maintain faith through trials and sufferings, as they are the LORD’s means of revealing the state of his heart (Rom 5:3–5; Jas 1:2–4; 1Pet 1:3–7).

After establishing that God tests the purity of hearts, the next two proverbs showcase hearts that are wicked and their consequent judgment. Verse 4 warns disciples not to listen to gossip and evil speech because eagerly listening to them indicates that they themselves are wicked.⁸⁷ Verse 5 warns the disciple not to “mock” (i.e., verbally ridicule) the poor on account of their “calamity” (i.e., distress) because ridiculing them ridicules God, who made them and identifies with them (cf. 14:31; 28:27). “Will not go unpunished” is litotes for certain, severe punishment, although when and how are left open.

Verse 6, the closing frame, returns to the topic of old age and crowns (16:31) to state powerfully the psychological and spiritual interdependence of the generations. Wise grandchildren are the crown (i.e., the symbol of dignity and authority) of the aged, while the “glory” (i.e., “boast” in a positive sense) of the young is their “fathers” (i.e., “ancestors,” and that includes mothers). The profound relevance of this proverb is clear in an age that seeks to divide the generations by idolizing youth and disparaging age.

This short section features three depraved personalities: the liar, the briber, and the gossip. Verse 7 argues from the lesser danger of a fool’s speaking eloquently, to the greater danger of a ruler who lies. If “fine speech” (i.e., eloquence) does not befit a “fool” (nābāl, i.e., one who is stupid and godless; cf. 17:21; 30:22; 1Sam 25:25; Ps 41:1), how much more do lies not befit a “prince” (i.e., a ruler) who is responsible for maintaining order and justice in the land?

Verse 8 features the briber in whose deluded mind a bribe works like a “magic stone” (i.e., a charm) in achieving his corrupt goals. And often it works! (see 18:16; 19:6; 21:14). The proverb is merely stating an oft-observed reality that continues still in the modern phenomenon of “pay-to-play” politics. The Book of Proverbs sometimes merely states the consequences of actions without evaluating them. It is up to the reader to decide if the actions are wise or foolish.⁸⁸ Other proverbs explicitly condemn the use of bribes (15:27; 17:23; cf. Exod 23:8; Deut 16:19).

Verse 9 features the gossip who reveals the sins of others and so causes alienation and division in the community. For the interpretation of verset A, see 10:12, and for verset B, see 16:28.

According to Lucas, proverbs on the futility of educating fools frame the unit (17:10, 16).⁸⁹ Proverbs within this frame warn the disciple of five dangers to avoid.

Verse 10 introduces the unit with a differentiation of the discerning person from the fool and by contrasting the effort it takes to correct each of them. Given any situation, all it takes to correct a discerning person is a single rebuke, because it “goes deeper into” (i.e., effects change in) him. By contrast, not even a hundred blows will correct a fool. The hyperbole emphasizes the fool’s unteachability.

Verse 11 warns the disciple of the danger of rebelling against God because rebels will be killed. “Rebellion” (mĕrî) most often refers to rebellion against God.⁹⁰ “Cruel messenger” refers to the agent of death. The divine passive “will be sent” identifies God as the one who sends the executioner.

Verse 12 emphatically warns the disciple of the deadly danger of associating with fools. The proverb is a type of better-than saying and asserts that it is better to encounter a she-bear bereft of her cubs, owing to human action (“by a man”), and, therefore, bent on implacable revenge on humans, than to encounter fools. While this proverb does not state the dangers that fools pose, other proverbs make them abundantly clear (e.g., 10:23; 13:19–20; 14:16; 21:20; 26:6).

Verse 13 warns disciples against the danger of being a betrayer who returns evil for good—something only a fool would do (e.g., Nabal in 1Sam 25:1–11 and Judas in Matt 27:4). The logic of the deed-destiny nexus will ensure that the betrayer will reap unremitting misery. “Evil will not depart his house” personifies evil as a home invader who takes up permanent residence in the betrayer’s house to ravage it. Rather than repaying evil for good, Proverbs teaches the disciple to repay evil with good (25:21; cf. Rom 12:14–17).

Verse 14 presents the danger of starting a dispute, which once begun can spread out of control with unintended collateral damage. If the next proverb warns judges to judge justly, it is likely that this proverb also enjoins judges to resolve a “quarrel” speedily (Hebrew rîb often refers to a legal dispute) before it grows and gets out of control. Paul chastised the Corinthian Christians for not dealing with a quarrel between brothers within the church. The church’s neglect resulted in the litigants ending up in public court, to the shame of the church and the message of the gospel (1Cor 6:1–11).

Verse 15 presents the final danger, that of corrupt judges who pervert justice by acquitting the guilty and condemning the innocent. The proverb clashes with the oft-quoted principle that it is better to let ten guilty people go free than to condemn one innocent person. Both are an abomination to God. The proverb implicitly warns disciples who may become judges that they themselves will be judged by God for their actions in administering justice (cf. Deut 25:1).

Verse 16 returns to the topic of fools and their education (see v. 10). Fools think they can shortcut the process of acquiring wisdom, which requires the fear of the LORD and submission to discipline, by simply paying for it. The rhetorical question—“Why should . . .?”– does not expect an answer but expresses the sage’s exasperation. Perhaps the fool has taken the command to “buy wisdom” in 4:4, 5, 7 literally. Or fools think everything can be bought for the right price. Whatever the case, the attempt to purchase wisdom further highlights the fool’s arrogance and lack of the spiritual virtues necessary for wisdom. The Book of Acts describes how Simon Magus attempted to buy from the apostles the power of transmitting the Holy Spirit to people. He was sharply rebuked by Peter (Acts 8:19–24).

Verse 17 teaches that in life one needs both friends and family, for when adversity strikes, both the friend’s love and the brother’s help will be needed. Other proverbs, however, teach that the friend’s constant loving support is preferable to that of a relative (see 18:24; 27:10).

Verse 18 qualifies verse 17 by warning that helping others does not include taking on their debts (see comments on 6:1–5).

Verse 19 warns the disciple against seeking friendship with misanthropes who love sin and are filled with pride. Such people love “strife” more than their friends. “Makes his door high” is imagery for their boastful pride. Misanthropes “seek destruction”—for themselves and possibly for their friends. The proverb implicitly teaches the disciple to choose friends carefully and to stay away from misanthropes (see 12:26).

Verse 20 further elaborates on the misanthrope of verse 19 by identifying his heart as the source of his problem. Misanthropes’ hearts are perverse. As a result, their actions, here represented by their “dishonest speech,” but including their love of sin and pride (v. 19), are wicked. Instead of finding prosperity, they find calamity. Disciples, therefore, need wisdom to discern the hearts of people in order to choose friends who will help and not harm them (see 13:20).

Verse 21 motivates youth to be wise by highlighting the emotional distress that foolish children cause their wise parents. “He who sires” refers to the father but includes the mother by synecdoche (cf. 17:25). The fact that the parents “have no joy”––a litotes signifying deep sorrow––over their foolish child suggests they are wise and raised him to be wise. But the ungrateful fool knowingly causes his parents pain by rejecting wisdom. Esau’s marriage to two Canaanite women caused his parents deep grief (Gen 26:13; 27:46; 28:8–9).

In context, verse 22 specifies the pain a foolish child causes his parents as the psychosomatic condition of deadly depression. In contrast to a wise son who gives his parents “a joyful heart” that vivifies and energizes them (see 27:11; cf. 15:13a), the foolish son “crushes the spirit,” an image for depression (cf. 15:13b). “Dries up the bones” is imagery for death (cf. Ezek 37:1–4) suggesting that the depressed parents die prematurely.

Verse 23 moves from the fool’s effect on his parents to his effect on society where he promotes injustice. The wicked person (i.e., the fool now viewed through the ethical register) from the bosom (i.e., secretly) takes (i.e., to give, or to receive) a bribe to pervert justice. An example of how justice is perverted is described in verse 26 as fining a righteous person and striking a noble person.

Verse 24, like verse 10, contrasts the discerning person with the fool, this time in terms of their aims. The “discerning person” (see 14:6) aims at wisdom, which is “before his face” and therefore attainable. By contrast, instead of focusing on attainable wisdom, the fool focuses “on the ends of the earth,” an image for an unrealistic and unattainable goal.

Verse 25 escalates the parental pain of verse 21 from sorrow to irritation and bitterness.

Verse 26, in context, suggests further follies committed by fools in relation to justice (see v. 23). The Hebrew particle gam (“also,” “even”), untranslated in the ESV, suggests an argument from lesser to greater. If fining a “righteous person” (i.e., innocent person) is “not good”—a litotes signifying that it is terrible—how much worse is flogging “the noble” (i.e., “honest officials” [NIV]) who are doing their job? When fools lead society, tyranny supplants justice.

This unit on speech begins with two proverbs depicting how the wise respond when provoked, followed by proverbs depicting the characteristics of foolish speech.

Verse 27 teaches that while restrained speech is a hallmark of the wise (10:19; 13:3; 21:23; 29:20), it is especially required when provoked, as implied by verset B. “Cool spirit” is functionally equivalent to “patience” (14:29) and describes the source of restrained speech. The “man of understanding” (see 10:23) possesses the inner fortitude to remain calm and not “lose his cool” in the heat of an argument and say something he later regrets (cf. 11:12b). Jesus exhibited this characteristic during his trial and crucifixion (Isa 53:7; Matt 27:14; 1 Pet 2:23; cf. Jas 3:2).

Verse 28 escalates the advice of restraining one’s speech when provoked to the point of silence. Unlike the fool who shows his annoyance at once, when the wise are provoked, they will either speak sparingly (v. 27) or not at all. Thus, when fools keep silent, they may be mistaken for the wise (cf. 12:16). The point is not that the fool is considered wise because he conceals his folly through silence, as in Abraham Lincoln’s witticism. But since silence is a hallmark of the wise, the fool may be mistaken for wise when he keeps silent.

Chapter 18

Verse 1 begins the focus on the fool and his speech. Here he is identified as one who separates himself from the godly community in order to get his own way. And worse yet, instead of repenting and returning, he “breaks out” (i.e., becomes combative) against “sound judgment,” a metonymy for the wise.

Verse 2 states one of the fundamental characteristics of the fool, namely, his abhorrence of wisdom (lit. “understanding”; see 3:19). “Takes no pleasure” is a litotes meaning “abhors.” Instead, what fools delight in is expressing their folly-filled hearts (i.e., minds), presumably through their verbose and destructive speech (12:23b).

Verse 3 labels the fool a wicked person who upon opening his mouth rightly experiences the community’s disdain. “Contempt comes also” could mean the contempt the wicked person⁹¹ has for others, or their contempt of him. Verset B suggests the latter is in view. When a wicked person enters the discussion, contempt begins and snowballs into shame and disgrace. The proverb aims to motivate youth to avoid disgrace by pursuing wisdom.

Verse 4 utilizes the imagery of different water sources to contrast the dangerous words of the wicked with the constantly flowing, and therefore accessible, words of the wise. In context, “a man” refers to the wicked fool. His words are likened to “deep waters,” an image connoting danger (Ps 69:2c, 14d). By contrast, “the fountain of wisdom,” an image for the words of the wise (cf. 10:11; 13:14; 16:22), is a “bubbling brook,” an image connoting accessibility and dependability.

Verse 5 warns the disciple of the danger of showing partiality to the wicked. “It is not good” is a litotes meaning “It is terrible.” “To lift the face of” (ESV footnote) is imagery for giving the wicked a favorable judgment (cf. Lev 19:15; Deut 10:17; Ps 82:2). Verset B explains why: it deprives the righteous of justice (see 17:15).

Verses 6–7 form a proverb pair as seen in their concentric structure:⁹²

A. “lips of fools” (6a)

B. “their mouths” (6b)

B’. “mouths of fools” (7a)

A’. “their lips” (7b)

The theme is the fool’s self-destructive speech, which escalates from causing him strife to causing him beatings, to causing him terror, and finally to causing his death. Through his speech, the fool intends to harm others but ends up harming himself. Being a fool, he does not have the sense to stop before it gets worse but talks himself into a “snare for his soul” (i.e., a deathtrap).

Verse 8, repeated in 26:22, warns the disciple not to listen to a “whisperer” (i.e., one who speaks destructive gossip; see 16:28). Sinners like hearing gossip. Job 20:12 pictures the wicked person as eagerly devouring evil because it is sweet to him. The proverb likens the attractiveness of gossip to delicious tidbits, eagerly swallowed. But once swallowed they descend into the deepest parts of the person and, by implication, ruin his character and energize him for evil (cf. 15:14). To listen to a slanderer is to “dine on destruction.”⁹³

This section of four proverbs is unified by the theme of security. Beginning with what threatens communal security (v. 9), the rest warns of threats to the security of the individual (vv. 10–12).

Verse 9 places the lazy in the same category as plunderers who rob and pillage the community. Lazy people, therefore, are not simply a danger to themselves (e.g., 6:6–11; 19:15; 20:24; 21:25; 24:30–34) but endanger the whole community. Abuses of the modern welfare state illustrate the truth of this proverb. Taxpayer-funded welfare cheques for people who are able but refuse to work impoverish society.

Verses 10–11 are connected by forms of the verb śāgab (“to be high”) and move the theme of security to the individual who finds total protection in the LORD and not in wealth. “The name of the LORD” refers to God’s character of covenant faithfulness. “Strong tower” (cf. 10:29) refers to an impregnable fortress. “Runs into it” is probably imagery for calling upon God in prayer.⁹⁴ In trouble, the righteous call upon God’s name and are saved (Ps 18:6; Joel 2:32; Acts 2:21; Rom 10:13). In contrast to the sure security God provides is the false security of trusting in wealth. “Rich man” (ʿāšîr; see 10:15). While wealth can provide some protection against life’s vicissitudes, its effectiveness is limited, as it can be gained and lost in an instant. Only the omniscient, omnipotent, and omnibenevolent LORD provides total and ultimate security. “In his imagination” strongly critiques the rich man’s view of his wealth.

Verse 12 warns the disciple that arrogance nullifies security. Verset A matches 16:18a, and verset B repeats verbatim 15:33b. In context, verset B teaches the disciple that humility is what enables the righteous to call upon the name of the LORD (v. 10), while verset A teaches that arrogance causes the “rich man” to reject God in favor of his wealth (v. 12).

Verse 13 teaches that fools have no patience for learning wisdom and so constantly interrupt the wise teacher with their shameful nonsense. The proverb may also be pointing the disciple to the source of patience, namely, a “cool spirit” (see 17:27; cf. 14:29), which is achieved through submission to the teachings of wisdom.

Verse 14 picks up the idea of “spirit” implied in verse 13 and teaches that with a healthy spirit one can endure “sickness” (i.e., any adversity). “Spirit” here refers to the psychical vitality of the person. “Crushed spirit” is imagery for depression (see 17:22b) wherein even the will to live is lost (cf. 2Cor 1:8). The question “who can bear?” may not be rhetorical, but, in context, may point to verse 10 as an instance of when one should seek shelter in “the name of the LORD.” In Psalm 51:10 David petitioned God to heal his crushed spirit (cf. 2Cor 1:8–11).

In contrast to the fool of verse 13 who has no patience for listening to wisdom, verse 15 characterizes the wise as continuously seeking to grow in knowledge (cf. 1:5). The proverb is consonant with Aristotle’s dilemma that one must be virtuous to become virtuous. James encourages Christians who lack wisdom to ask God for it and promises that our generous God will answer such prayers (Jas 1:5; cf. Prov 2:6).

The next four proverbs teach the disciple about justice and the courts. Since courts played a major role in ancient Israelite society, the wise disciple needed to learn how they operated and how to conduct himself should he become an officer of the court and/or a user of it.

Verse 16 warns disciples that justice is vulnerable to manipulation. Apart from 19:6, “gift” (mattān) in Proverbs is used negatively to describe a benefit given to obtain an unfair advantage (15:27b; 21:14). “The great” refers to people with influence and in Micah 7:3 refers to judges. The proverb implicitly warns the disciple not to be a giver or receiver of bribes.

Verse 17 teaches disciples that should they become judges, rather than accepting bribes, they should try cases justly and fairly. This includes allowing the prosecutor to present the evidence and then the defense to cross-examine it vigorously and thoroughly. It is tempting to be convinced by the first person who presents evidence. Justice, however, requires listening to all sides. The truth of this proverb takes on special meaning in today’s “Me Too” climate, which asserts that alleged victims should be believed without question. This “believe all victims” view, if adopted by the courts, will lead to judicial chaos and render the courts a mechanism of revenge and not of justice. All claims made in court must be subject to cross-examination.

Verse 18 deals with cases where the evidence is ambiguous, the contenders are powerful, and a clear verdict is impossible. The courts of Solomon’s day did not possess the tools of modern forensics that enable facts to be established through independent means, such as fingerprints, video footage, and DNA. In such cases, the lot was used to resolve matters. “Powerful contenders” may refer to strong opponents who resort to violence (e.g., dueling) to settle the dispute. It is better to let divine providence decide the matter by the casting of the lot than to resort to violence and its collateral damage.

Verse 19, in context, suggests another type of dispute which the lot might settle. “Brother” refers to a close friend, not a blood relative. When such a person is offended, winning him back is likened to breaching the fortified walls of a city or breaking through the bolt of a castle gate—the task is impossible. Here again, the lot may have the answer, provided the parties are humble and open to reconciliation.

Two proverbs on the power of speech warn the disciple that one’s speech has the power to bless or ruin speaker and hearers.

Verse 20 focuses on the effects of speech on the speaker. “The fruit of a man’s mouth” refers to the results a speaker’s words bring him. “His stomach” is a synecdoche for the whole person. “Is satisfied” (i.e., is paid back fully). The proverb does not specify whether the payback is good or evil. That will depend on the speech. Wise speech will reward the speaker with good; wicked speech will result in harm. The B verset says the same thing but changes the metaphor from the orchard (“fruit”) to the grainfield (“produce”). The proverb affirms the deed-destiny nexus that actions lead to corresponding consequences.

Verse 21 focuses on the effects of speech on both speaker and listener. “Death and life” is a merism referring to all types of positive and negative consequences that result from speech. “The power of the tongue” refers to the ability of speech to cause death or life. “Those who love it” refers both to those who speak and to those who listen. “Will eat its fruits” means both groups will receive their just rewards. The proverb not only warns the disciple to be a wise speaker but also to be a discerning listener.

The phrase “finding good” opens and closes this unit (māṣāʾ ṭôb [18:22a]; limṣōʾ-ṭôb [19:8b]). In the opening proverb, the disciple finds good by finding a wise wife; in the closing proverb, he finds “good” by acquiring wisdom and understanding. In between are sandwiched proverbs on how wealth and poverty disrupt human relationships. The unit as a whole teaches that the key to successful human relationships is not wealth, or its lack, but a wise home and a wise disciple.

Verse 22 encourages the disciple to be a diligent seeker of a wife. The context of Proverbs suggests that the sought wife will not be any woman but a wise one (cf. the LXX’s addition of “good wife” in this verse). “Finds a good thing” means he finds something delightful and beneficial to life. It is unclear if “favor from the LORD” refers to the wife as the example of God’s favor, or if God’s favor will come because of the marriage. The verse is similar to 8:35 where Woman Wisdom states, “He who finds me finds life and so obtains favor from the LORD.” The proverb may be implying that the son must first find and marry Wisdom in order to look for and marry a good woman properly. While marriage and children were an unqualified good in the Old Testament period, they are relativized in the New Testament. Jesus and Paul gave priority to making disciples for the Kingdom of God. And while he did not condemn marriage, Paul commended singleness as better suited to total commitment to God’s work during the end times (1Cor 7).

Verse 23 moves to a less-than-ideal human relationship. The poor individual, who lacks money and power, “pleads for mercy” (NIV) when addressing the wealthy, probably in court. “The rich” (i.e., those with wealth but no fear of God), however, possess power and so have a choice in how they respond to the pleas of the poor. Here they respond roughly (i.e., fiercely). Those who do not fear God can hardly be expected to be merciful to the less fortunate. Proverbs 22:2 reminds the rich that the poor too are made in the image of God (cf. Matt 18:21–35).

Verse 24 teaches disciples that in friendship what matters is quality, not quantity. “Man of many companions” refers to someone who has unreliable friends who abandon him when most needed. “Ruin” indicates that the man was destroyed by the trouble his friends abandoned him to. By contrast, it is better to have one friend whose unwavering support can be counted on in all circumstances. Jesus identifies himself as a person who is willing to die for his friends and asks his friends to do the same for each other (John 15:12).

Chapter 19

Verse 1 teaches that poverty with integrity is better than wealth with folly. The imprecise parallelism of the versets means that the missing elements in each verset must be completed by the other. Thus the “poor person” is wise, and the “fool” is rich. The poor wise person who nevertheless “walks in his integrity” (see comments on 10:9) is better off than a rich fool who speaks lies. The former is blessed (20:7), the latter doomed (11:4).

Verse 2 is an argument from lesser (verset A) to greater (verset B). If “desire” (i.e., craving) unfettered by knowledge, a correlative of wisdom, is not good (i.e., disastrous), how much more will those who hasten to gratify those cravings “miss the way” (i.e., end up in spiritual and physical catastrophe)? The proverb teaches the important role of wisdom in controlling vices.

In context, verse 3 advances the thought of verse 2. When people’s folly results in their ruin, they rage against God instead of humbly repenting and seeking his favor. The first words of the man after disobeying God, and eating from the forbidden tree, cast aspersions upon God for giving him the woman (Gen 3:12). When God rejected Cain’s offering, he became angry, and instead of repenting let his anger explode into fratricide (Gen 4:5–8). By contrast, David immediately repented when confronted with his sin (2Sam 12:1–13; cf. Ps 51).

Verse 4 teaches the disciple the problems that both wealth and poverty cause. On the one hand, the wealthy have many friends who hope to get something from them; on the other hand, even the one friend of the poor person abandons him, because he thinks the poor person will want something from him. Both lack true friends. The proverb teaches the disciple to be neither a sycophant (14:20) nor a fair-weather friend (18:24).

As verse 3 elaborated verse 2, so verse 5 elaborates on the liar of verse 1. The precisely synonymous parallelism of the versets emphasizes that those who lie, probably in court, to advantage themselves and disadvantage others will face punishment. The use of the Niphal imperfects (“will not go unpunished,” “will not escape”) suggest that God is the implied Agent who will ultimately exact punishment upon the liar, who may escape imperfect human justice. The proverb is repeated in verse 9 but escalates the penalty from punishment to death.

Verse 6 maintains the courtroom setting and warns the disciple that justice can be perverted with money. Through wealth one can influence others. This is the main point of the proverb. Nādîb can be translated as “noble” or “generous.” Combined it would indicate a generous nobleman and is parallel to “a man who gives gifts” in verset B. People seek the favor of the generous, and if they provide it with no strings attached, that is noble indeed (11:25; cf. Ps 112:5). If, however, the generosity is of the “You scratch my back and I’ll scratch yours” type, then it is vile. The proverb does not specify which type of generosity is in view. If the courtroom setting is correct, then it is warning the disciple against the latter type.

Verse 7 expands the idea of verse 4b. While one can be noble in poverty (v. 1), the reality is that poverty is painful. Here the loneliness of the poor is escalated from rejection (i.e., “hate”) by all his blood relatives to desertion by his closest friends. The pathos of the situation is escalated by the rare third verset, which shows the poor man pleading in the wake of his relatives and friends but unable to reach them because they are nowhere to be found.⁹⁵ The point of the proverb is not to encourage disciples to avoid poverty by becoming rich, but to warn them not to reject the poor.

Verse 8 closes the unit with a proverb promising that if the disciple acquires wisdom (lit. “heart”) and “guards (i.e., preserves) understanding” (see 8:1b), he will safeguard his life (lit. “loves his life”) and will “find good” (i.e., live life abundantly). It is not enough to acquire wisdom; one must also both preserve and persevere in it.

Verses 9–12 pertain to the king’s court and provide advice on pleasing and not angering the monarch. Verses 13–15 pertain to the home and what makes or breaks it.

Verse 9 repeats verse 5. Righteous kings hate false witnesses.

Verse 10 warns of two intolerable social situations. A rebellious slave ruling over princes (i.e., becoming king) is compared with the lesser evil of a fool living in luxury. Both are socially problematic and not in accord with wisdom, but the former is worse since it affects the nation negatively (see 30:22–23). When fools live in luxury, it mocks the teaching that wisdom is the way to prosperity (3:16; 8:18). But it is even worse when a rebellious slave attains absolute leadership. Not only will the nation be led by an illegitimate leader, but it will also encourage others to seek power through rebellion. The proverb assumes that both realities can occur and so warns the wise disciple to avoid such ways to power and prosperity. The devil offered Jesus a shortcut to power if he rebelled against his Father’s will. Jesus rejected the offer (Matt 4:8–10).

Verses 11–12 are a proverb pair that warn both king and subjects to be careful with the king’s power. Leadership entails being angered by many situations and persons, but the leader must exercise caution in how he reacts. Verse 11 commends patience and forgiveness as the ways of wisdom (29:11). A leader who exercises such temperance will earn “glory” (i.e., social esteem) in the eyes of his subjects. Verse 12 warns the people not to presume on the king’s forbearance, but when they see that he is provoked, to stop their provocations immediately. The king’s deadly wrath is likened to the growl of a lion that presages an attack. The wise who hear the growl will immediately take steps to prevent the attack. If successful, they will experience the king’s favor, which is like “dew on the grass” (i.e., renewing and life-giving; cf. Gen 27:28; Deut 33:28).

Verse 13 presents two situations that ruin the home: a foolish son and a nagging wife. The foolish son undermines the father from below (see v. 15) and the quarrelsome wife from alongside him. The proverb aims to warn the disciple to look to the LORD to provide him with a wise wife (18:22) and to raise his children in wisdom (22:6).

In contrast to the dysfunctional home of verse 13, verse 14 presents a functional home where the wealth inherited from previous generations is preserved, increased, and bequeathed to succeeding generations. The key to success appears to be a “prudent wife,” the antithesis to the “quarrelsome wife” of verse 13. Such a wife exercises her exceptional gift of household management to ensure that the inherited wealth is not squandered but guarded and grown (see 31:10–31). The proverb implies that if one has inherited wealth, one also needs a prudent wife to manage it successfully.

Verse 15 describes one way in which the foolish son of verse 13 undermines the home: by laziness. Laziness leads to “deep sleep” (tardēmâ) in which one is unaware of danger (see comments on 6:6–11). Verset B lists the deadly danger as hunger (i.e., starvation). The implication is that the sleeping sluggard is unable to guard his possessions and so loses everything and eventually starves to death (cf. 24:30–34).

This unit on being kind to the needy is framed by proverbs on what preserves life (vv. 16 and 23). In the middle are four proverbs on training the child—two addressed to the father (vv. 18–19) and two addressed to the child (vv. 20–21). In between the frame and the middle are proverbs teaching kindness to the poor (vv. 17 and 22). Proverbs about the LORD occur in verses 17, 21, and 23. As a whole, the unit teaches that training children in divine wisdom includes training them to be kind to the needy, and such kindness will preserve their lives. It can be diagrammed as follows:

A. Preserving life by adhering to wisdom 16

B. Generosity to the poor 17

C. Discipline your son 18

C’. Warning not to discipline an incorrigible hothead 19

D. Accept instruction 20

D’. Accept God’s will 21

B’. Kindness to the poor 22

A’. Preserving life by fearing the LORD 23

Verse 16 teaches disciples that careful attention to the “commandment” (i.e., the teaching of wisdom) will safeguard their lives, while one who disregards “his ways” will die. “His ways” can be either the person’s ways (i.e., his lifestyles) or God’s ways. In either case, careful attention to wisdom, which leads one in the right ways, safeguards one’s life.

Verse 17 teaches disciples the supreme importance of being generous to the poor, for in being so, one is figuratively giving God a loan. Verset B explains the figure. Since God identifies with the poor, their debts are his debts (Ps 68:5). In helping the poor, therefore, one is lending to the LORD, and since God pays his debts, he will ensure that the disciple is rewarded for his generosity (11:17, 25; Pss 41:1–3; 112:5). Jesus taught his disciples that kind acts done to the needy were acts done to him (Matt 25:31; cf. Jas 1:27).

Verse 18 commands the father to discipline his children faithfully and consistently in the “hope” that such discipline will preserve their lives. The parallel to “hope” in verset B is “death,” suggesting that “hope” in verset A refers to “life.” In Proverbs, “discipline” takes the form of verbal instruction to prevent acts of folly, and corporal punishment to prevent their repetition. The proverb assumes that children are not born as tabulae rasae but with folly already embedded in their hearts, and it is loving discipline that drives out folly and replaces it with wisdom.

Verse 19 limits the effectiveness of discipline with some types of children. In the case of the hothead (lit. “[one] great of wrath”), parental discipline is ineffective. In his case, it is better to let him experience the consequences of his folly (see 5:11–14). Delivering a hothead from trouble will teach him nothing, and he will immediately repeat it, resulting in a never-ending pattern. In Jesus’s parable of the Prodigal Son, the loving father released his son to his folly, which eventually led the prodigal to acknowledge his folly and return in repentance (Luke 15:11–24). This proverb releases parents from the burden of having to repeatedly bail out incorrigible children.

Verse 20 commands the son to “listen . . . and receive” (i.e., to outwardly hear, inwardly take in, and actively perform) “counsel” (ʿēṣâ; see comments on 1:24–25) and “discipline” (mûsār; see comments on 1:2). Verset B states the promise: in the final assize he will be wise (i.e., counted amongst the wise). The term bĕʾaḥărîtekā (“in your end”) has been variously understood. Usually in Proverbs the term ʾaḥărît refers to the final consequence of one’s actions or lifestyle (cf. 5:4, 11). So here, the disciple’s life-long journey in wisdom will result in the honorable recognition that the disciple belongs in the ranks of the wise. The proverb suggests that it is only in light of the whole of life that one can determine whether it was a wise or foolish life.

Verse 21 is similar to 16:1 and 16:9 and teaches that no matter how many plans humans make, it is God’s counsel (ʿēṣâ) that will prevail. The repetition of the word ʿēṣâ from verse 20a in verse 21b suggests that this proverb admonishes the disciple to accept God’s will and submit to the discipline of wisdom (v. 20), since, in the end, that is God’s will for his people.

Verset A of verse 22 can be read in two different ways depending on how one renders the word ḥesed, which can mean either “kindness” or “shame” (cf. 14:34). Here the context and the proverb’s parallel in verse 17 suggest the former meaning. Like verse 17, this proverb calls the disciple to be a kind person, especially to the poor, since kindness is what people desire in others. Verset B makes the point that if one is poor, it is better to be honest about it so that people will not depend on you mistakenly. If you pretend to be rich and people depend on you for help, they will be disappointed.

Verse 23, like 14:27a, affirms that the greatest benefit of fearing the LORD is life. Verset B qualifies this life as superabundant and secure.

This unit, on different types of fools and their treatment, is framed by proverbs about the sluggard (19:24; 20:4).

Verse 24 depicts the first fool, the sluggard, who is too lazy even to feed himself. Beneath the humorous depiction of the lazybones who, having picked up food from his plate, cannot be bothered to bring it to his mouth, lies a deadly picture. Sluggards are willing to starve rather than to exert the minimal energy required to feed themselves. The proverb, which is similar to 26:25, highlights the self-destructive nature of laziness, which is no laughing matter.

Verse 25 lists the second fool, the mocker, and advises physically punishing him. The punishment, however, is not for the benefit of the mocker, who is beyond correction, but for the benefit of the uncommitted, who upon observing the mocker being beaten will be motivated to repent and seek wisdom. By contrast, mere verbal correction is sufficient for the wise to become even wiser. The point of the proverb is that verbal correction is insufficient to correct the uncommitted. They need to be “scared straight.”⁹⁶

Verse 26 describes the third fool, the utterly shameful son, who drives his parents away with violence and steals their property. The Decalogue commands adult children to honor their parents. This includes not demanding an inheritance while the parents are alive. “Shame and reproach” may be a hendiadys meaning “being utterly contemptible.” The proverb is similar to 28:24 (cf. 20:21; Luke 15:11–24).

Given the placement of verse 27 immediately following verse 26, it may offer an explanation of the shameful son’s behavior.⁹⁷ In that case, the son’s crime against his parents (v. 26) is probably a result of his rejecting instruction (v. 27a) and wisdom (v. 27b). The form of this proverb is puzzling since it commands the son to stop listening to instruction. Such a command is the opposite of what the parents consistently command their son (e.g., 1:8; 3:1, 11; 4:1, 10, and passim). The most probable explanation is that the proverb is using sarcasm to teach that without constant attention to instruction, one will stray from knowledge (i.e., wisdom; cf. Jer 44:25; Ezek 20:39; Amos 4:4 for similar uses of sarcasm). Most translations, like the ESV, translate the proverb conditionally: “stop . . . and you will stray . . .” The proverb warns the son that attention to wisdom must be a daily, life-long practice, since the moment one stops, one is in danger of straying.

Verses 28–29 form a proverb pair linked by the words “mocks/mockers” (vv. 28a/29a) and “justice/judgment” (vv. 28a/29a). Verse 28 identifies the fourth type of fool as corrupt witnesses who make a mockery of justice, and verse 29 advises punishing them harshly (see 10:13b).

Chapter 20

Verse 1 introduces the fifth fool, the one who consumes intoxicants to the point of inebriation. Verset A personifies “wine” and “beer” (i.e., all types of intoxicants) as insolent rowdies. Verset B warns disciples that indulging in them leads away from wisdom. The proverb is not teaching total abstinence. Wine is considered a symbol of blessing in 3:10 and 9:5. But overindulgence leads to lowering of inhibitions, loss of self-control, and poverty (cf. 21:17; 23:21, 29–35).

Verse 2 does not introduce a new type of fool but describes another of their characteristics, namely, their inability to recognize danger and avoid it. Here the danger they miss is the king’s fearsome anger (cf. 19:12a), and so instead of doing all they can to assuage it, they provoke it by continuing in their wicked ways. “Forfeits his (i.e., the fool’s) life” states the inevitable fatal result of the fool’s provocation. If a human king is so angered by fools that he eliminates them, how much more is the LORD angered by them (20:8; 22:10; 26:20)?

Verse 3 depicts another characteristic of the fool, namely, pugnacity. While the wise are characterized as those who avoid conflicts and/or resolve them appropriately (cf. 3:30; 25:9), fools are characterized by their quarrelsome nature (18:1; 19:13).

Verse 4, the final proverb of the unit, returns to the sluggard (cf. 19:24) to teach the disciple that dereliction results in dearth. The sluggard who “does not plow in autumn” (i.e., did not do the prep-work required to produce a crop) will have nothing at harvest time because crops do not grow themselves—they need to be seeded in ploughed ground. The proverb is teaching that without preparation there is no product.

This section deals with the necessity of fathoming people since they are not always who they say they are. The disciple must have the wisdom to probe people to determine their character and not be deceived by their words. Verse 8 functions as a janus in both concluding the present section and introducing the next one on justice (20:9–11).

Verse 5 teaches the disciple to be a “man of understanding” (see 10:23) who can discern the hidden motives of others. Here “counsel” refers to the plans or purposes that lie within a person’s heart. “Deep waters” is a negative image, suggesting that a person’s plans are potentially dangerous and difficult to discern (see 18:4). “Draw them out” refers to the wise person’s ability to discover people’s deeply hidden motives.

Verse 6 informs the disciple of the sorry state of the human condition where hypocrisy abounds, and honesty is rare. In contrast to the “many” who proclaim their loyalty is the one “man of faithfulness.” The rhetorical question “Who can find?” expects the answer “Hardly anyone.” The proverb aims to disabuse disciples of the naïve notion that all humans are basically good and to encourage them to seek out wisely the few that are.

Verse 7 balances the pessimism of verse 6 by focusing on the rare “righteous” person and the blessing he leaves behind for his children. The proverb encourages living lives of integrity and righteousness because not only is that necessary for one’s own generation, but it is also vital to ensure the success of future generations. While it is not certain that the children of godly parents will themselves become godly (consider, e.g., the sons of Samuel and David), current polls consistently reveal that the parents’ faith is the most important human factor in the child’s religious development. The blessings that children of godly parents experience include higher rates of psychological well-being, lower rates of mental illness, lower incidence of drug abuse, less incidence of sexual experimentation, and a higher sense of purpose.⁹⁸

Verse 8 teaches that, given the pervasiveness of human sin, God has established the monarchy as one means of eliminating evil. In Israel, kings were appointed by God (Ps 2:6; 2Sam 7:13, 16; 1Kgs 1:13, 17; 2:24; for the exception that proves the rule, see Hos 8:4). “Throne of judgment” refers to the king’s authority to exercise justice. “Winnowing” is the process of separating the good from the bad and keeping the former while driving off the latter. “All evil” is a metonymy for the depraved. “His eyes” refers to the king’s keen discernment of all cases.

Verse 8, which concluded the previous section, also introduces the present section, which is arranged in an alternating pattern:⁹⁹

A. King’s justice 8

B. Universal human depravity 9

A’. The LORD’s justice 10

B’. Human depravity even in youth 11

This pattern, which connects the king’s justice and God’s justice (A/A’), reveals the close connection between the king and God in establishing justice upon the earth (see 16:1–15). The king acts as God’s surrogate, and God stands behind him in the enactment of justice. The interspersed proverbs on human depravity (B/B’) suggest that while the king metes out justice, he must take into consideration that humans are sinful in their hearts. Therefore, while he must judge human behavior, the ultimate solution requires a transformed heart. Similarly, while God metes out justice, he takes into consideration that humans are sinful from their youth (Gen 8:21). Taken as a whole, the section teaches that while God and the king hand down justice, it is tempered with grace (cf. 20:28). It also points to the need of a renewed heart as the ultimate remedy for human sin (cf. Jer 31:31–34; Ezek 36:26).

This unit begins with a proverb pair on the importance of perspicuity (vv. 12–13) and concludes with a proverb pair on seeking counsel from the wise instead of a gossip (18–19). Within this frame are proverbs on speech.

Verse 12 teaches that the LORD has endowed humans with two organs to enable them to keep alert and to keep from being duped. “Hearing ear and seeing eye” refer to discernment more than to the physical senses of sight and hearing (cf. Isa 6:9–10; Ezek 12:2). Since the LORD made the organs of perception, he can enable one to discern the truth of what one sees and hears.

The catchword “eye” links verse 13 to verse 12. “Love not sleep” does not condemn sleeping (3:24), but when qualified with “lest you come to poverty,” refers to laziness. “Open your eyes” means to become alert to the opportunities and dangers of life, which when properly discerned and responded to, enable “plenty of bread,” a metonymy for prosperity. One of my students paraphrased this sharply: “No one becomes a someone while sleeping.”

Verse 14 warns the disciple about using speech to cheat in business. The buyer criticizes the product to get the seller to lower the price. However, once purchased, the buyer boasts of his bartering skill. The buyer commits two sins: he cheats the seller of a fair price, and he boasts in self instead of in God. The proverb implicitly condemns such hypocritical use of speech.

In contrast to the hypocritical speech prevalent in business, verse 15 commends the use of wise speech in business. The problem, however, is the rarity of such speech. Gold and silver are valuable because they are scarce; thus, for something to be more valuable than them would require it to be even scarcer. “Lips of knowledge” (i.e., speech instructed by Proverbs) is such a commodity.

Verse 16 provides another example of foolish speech in business. Like 6:1–5, 11:15, and 17:18 (cf. 22:26–27; 27:13), this proverb warns against agreeing to cover the debts of “foreigners” (nokrîm; i.e., those outside the covenant community). The proverb is explicitly addressed to the creditor but implicitly warns the disciple of the creditor’s legal right to demand payment from the surety if the borrower reneges on the loan. Being a surety for a good friend or family member is risky, but being a surety for a foreigner is stupid.

Verse 17 escalates from foolish speech to deceitful speech. “Food” (i.e., material profit) gained by “deceit” (in context, “deceitful speech”) may appear “sweet” for a time when the liar appears to have succeeded in his fraud (cf. 9:17) and is enjoying the proceeds of his crime. “But afterward” (i.e., eventually) the fraudster’s “mouth will be full of gravel.” The imagery portrays the fraudster’s profits turning from bread to gravel and filling his mouth so that he breaks his teeth and chokes to death. The agent of judgment is not mentioned, but the Niphal imperfect—“will be filled”—suggests that God is the ultimate Agent who ensures the criminal’s destruction.

Verses 18–19, the concluding proverb pair, advise the disciple to take counsel from wise counsellors before engaging in conflict. Verset A of verse 18 establishes the rationale for the command in verset B. It is because plans made with the advice of wise counsellors are “established” (i.e., successful; cf. 11:14; 15:22; 24:6) that one must consult the sages before waging war. In the Old Testament, all occurrences of “war” (milḥāmâ) refer to physical conflict. However, since warcraft was primarily the king’s duty, here “war” may include any conflict that a leader must engage in (cf. Luke 14:31–33). While acquiring counsel is essential, verse 19 warns the disciple to ensure that he consults only the wise. Once again, verset A states the reason for the admonition in verset B. Slanderers reveal secrets and so must not be consulted for counsel. Telling slanderers one’s plans, especially if they relate to conflict, will lead to disaster, because they may reveal one’s plans to the enemy. Verse 19 is similar to 11:13.

This unit warns the disciple not to dishonor the three prime authorities in life: parents (vv. 20–21), God (vv. 22–25, 27), and king (vv. 26, 28).

Verse 20 warns youth not to curse their parents since those who do will suffer premature and eternal death. To “curse” (qālal) something means to take it lightly, to treat it as worthless. Instead of cursing parents, the Law commanded children to treat them as “heavy” (kabbēd; Exod 20:12; Deut 5:16) and condemned to death those who cursed their parents (Exod 21:17; Lev 20:9). “Lamp” is a metaphor for life. “Put out” suggests premature death. “In utter darkness” is imagery that escalates the death from premature physical death to eternal death.

In context, verse 21 suggests the reason why children curse their parents, namely, to seize their inheritance prematurely (cf. 19:26). This interpretation is adopted because verses 20 and 21 are linked by the use of “to curse” in verse 20a and its semantic equivalent, “will not be blessed” (i.e., “is cursed”), in verse 21b. The child who curses his parents to seize his inheritance will find he receives a cursed inheritance.

Verses 22–23 are linked by the divine name YHWH. Together they teach disciples not to dishonor God by seeking vengeance (v. 22) but to trust him because he is just (v. 23). “Do not say” prohibits talking to oneself or to others about taking vengeance. The proverb assumes that the normal avenues for redressing wrongs, such as bringing the matter to the lawcourts, have failed. In that case, the temptation to take vengeance can be great. However, the proverb commands waiting on the LORD (see 24:29; cf. Lev 19:18). The imperative “wait” (qawwē) means to wait eagerly, expectantly. It is the attitude that must be taken in the time between being wronged and God’s righting of it. “He will deliver you” assures the disciple of God’s vindication no matter how long the wait. Jesus taught his disciples to pray, “Do not lead us into temptation but deliver us from evil,” which may allude to this proverb (Matt 6:13). In context, verse 23 assures the disciple of God’s moral rectitude (see comments on 20:10) wherein he executes justice against all wrongs. By stating that unequal weights and false scales—here probably a metonymy for the divinely instituted moral order—are an abomination to the LORD (cf. 11:1), the proverb implies that all offenses are ultimately offenses against God. Thus, vengeance does not belong to the human victim, but to God, since it is his Law that has been violated (Deut 32:43; cf. Rom 12:19).

While verse 23 assured the disciple that God’s moral rectitude takes account of all wrongs, verse 24 assures the wronged disciple that God is sovereign and so is able to execute justice. The God who directs the “steps” (i.e., life-course) of all humans can and will ensure that victims and perpetrators are led to their appropriate destinies. This aspect of God’s sovereignty is a mystery to humans because they are unable to see that God makes their plans and decisions serve his ultimate purposes (16:9). The proverb is not discouraging the making of plans but cautioning that all such plans must be held in tension with God’s ultimate purposes.

Since God is sovereign and in control of circumstances (v. 24), verse 25 warns disciples not to try and manipulate the future through a rash vow—“It is holy.” Such attempts to manipulate God will become “a snare” since the Law required all vows to be paid in full (cf. Num 30:2; Deut 23:21; Ps 50:14; Eccl 5:1–6; but see Lev 5:4–6). Jephthah vowed to sacrifice the first thing that came out of his house if God gave him victory in battle. But being unable to control the future, he found to his horror that it was his daughter who came out first. Having made the vow, he was trapped and had to offer his daughter (Judg 11:30–38; cf. Judg 21:1, 6 for more rash vows). “Reflect” here includes thinking deeply about one’s motives in making the vow. Obviously, this should be done before making the vow.

Verse 26 cautions against dishonoring the king. In context, one way this may be done is by bypassing the king’s role in administering justice and seeking one’s own revenge (v. 22). In fact, one means by which God avenges wrongs is through his “wise king.” “Winnows (or “scatters”) the wicked” is imagery for the king’s eliminating the wicked from his kingdom. “Drives the wheel over them” is imagery for the process of threshing wherein the wicked are separated from the innocent and destined for destruction.

Verse 27, sandwiched between proverbs about the king, returns to the LORD’s role in administering justice, this time assuring disciples of God’s omniscience. God knows everything about humans since the “spirit” (or “breath”) that he placed in them (Gen 2:7) that comes out as speech¹⁰⁰ is his ‘flashlight’ that illuminates their “innermost part” (i.e., the heart) to his gaze. Jesus taught that the mouth speaks what the heart is full of (Luke 6:45).

Verse 28 returns to the king and balances his fierce treatment of the wicked with his kindness and faithfulness to the weak and downtrodden. “Steadfast love and faithfulness,” when internalized, safeguard the king and prevent him from ruling by the maxim Fiat Justitia ruat caelum (“Let justice be done though the heavens fall”) alone. A wise king will balance justice and mercy.

Two proverbs highlight the importance of the older generation and the use of corporal punishment to teach the youth.

Verse 29 teaches the interdependence of the older and younger generation for community building. The “glory” (i.e., source of boasting) of young men is their raw physical strength. The splendor of the aged is their “grey hair,” a metonym for wisdom (cf. 16:31). When the physical power of the young is harnessed and guided by the wisdom of the aged, the community is built up. In sum, youth require the wisdom of the aged to prevent them from running amok, and the aged require the energy of the youth to implement the former’s wise policies.

Verse 30 calls on youth to submit to remedial punishment since it scrubs away evil from their “innermost parts” (see v. 27). The proverb implies that physical discipline, when applied to the wise, affects not only their bodies but also penetrates deep into their hearts and cleanses it of moral impurity. No amount of physical punishment, however, works on a fool (see 27:22).

This unit is framed by the theme of God’s sovereignty (21:1–2, 30–31). The proverbs within the frame describe righteous and wicked behaviors that are respectively blessed and punished.

Using imagery, verse 1 teaches that God directs the king to bless those subjects that please God. The “king’s heart” is a metonymy for his decisions. Here, “streams of water” (or “canal”) is a metaphor for a source of blessing that is deliberately guided to a target. “Hand of the LORD” personifies God’s sovereign power. The proverb encourages disciples to live righteously, promising that if they do, God will bless them through his king.

The catchword “heart” links verse 2 with verse 1 and continues the theme of God’s sovereignty. The proverb’s versets contrast two evaluations of a person to show that it is the LORD’s evaluation that will stand. A person uses his subjective “eyes” to evaluate his superficial “ways” (i.e., actions) and pronounces them “right.” But God utilizes the objective instrument of scales to “weigh” the “heart” (i.e., inner thoughts and motives). The implication is that God’s evaluation is more accurate and determines who deserves his blessing (v. 1).

Verse 3 specifies that the person who pleases God, and so is blessed (v. 1), is the one who does righteousness and justice (see 1:3). “Is more acceptable . . . than sacrifice” does not depreciate sacrifices but affirms the common biblical view that God ranks the heart’s attitude above mere performance of rituals (cf. 15:8; Mic 6:6–8; Matt 23:23; Mark 12:28–34).

Verse 4 identifies the arrogant as those who displease God and so are not blessed. “Haughty eyes and a proud heart” (i.e., prideful arrogance) describe the fundamental characteristic of the wicked. Verset B labels these characteristics an “unplowed field” (nir; NIV). Just as an unplowed field produces thorns and thistles (24:30–31), so the arrogant hearts of the wicked produce only sin.

Verse 5 teaches that those who seek to get rich quickly through wicked methods also displease God. The proverb’s versets contrast “the plans of the diligent,” which implicitly accord with wisdom and so are righteous (verset A), with “everyone who is hasty” (verset B). The parallelism is imprecise, suggesting that, in contrast to the diligent, the hasty make plans that are not in accord with wisdom and so are wicked. The former are blessed with profit; the latter end in “lack.”

Verse 6 clarifies that the “hasty” of verse 5 became rich through deceit, and the “lack” they suffer is death, brought on by their ill-gotten gain. Ill-gotten gain carries with it God’s death sentence (cf. 13:11; 20:17).

While verse 6 addressed the issue of wealth obtained by fraud, verse 7 deals with wealth obtained by violence. “The violence of the wicked” refers both to the violence they perpetrate on others and to what eventually befalls them. “Drag them away” pictures the wicked being dragged away as fish in a net to their demise. Verset B states the reason: they refused to do justice (v. 3).

Verse 8 sums up the characteristics of the wicked and the righteous in terms of their habitual behaviors. The “ways” or “deeds,” as in verset B, of the wicked are “crooked,” earning them the epithet “the guilty.” They will be judged and eliminated. By contrast, the deeds of the righteous are “straight,” earning them the epithet “the pure” (or “innocent”). They please God and will be rewarded with his blessing (v. 1).

Verse 9 features the foolish wife, who by her contentiousness drives her husband out of the home and onto a corner of the roof. Nevertheless, that exposed and precarious spot is preferable to him than the strife-stricken home. The proverb implies that the wife’s hostility is unreasonable and underserved. The proverb warns the male disciple to be one who pleases the LORD and so is rewarded with a valiant wife (18:22; cf. 12:4; 14:1; 31:12). Female readers are encouraged to be wise wives who bless their husbands and build up the home (12:4; 14:1; 31:12). This proverb is similar to verse 19 and is repeated in 25:24.

Verse 10 adds the negative attribute of mercilessness to the wicked. After describing the wicked as ‘evilholics’ (see 4:16), verset B adds that their neighbors can expect no mercy from them.

Verse 11 teaches that the uncommitted, a type of fool (see comments on 1:22), may yet be redeemed through a two-fold process: by observing the mocker being fined (ʿānaš; see 17:26), and by listening to the wise. Punishment does not correct mockers (15:12; 27:22), but it may cause the uncommitted to repent. My interpretation follows the NIV translation of this verse, which invests the word haśkîl lĕ with the same meaning that it has in verse 12, “observe,” “pay attention to.”

Verse 12 escalates the discipline of the wicked from fining by humans to ruin by God. Normally in Proverbs, the adjective saddîq (“righteous”) describes a human, but here it refers to God, since it is in apposition to “the one who casts down the wicked,” which can refer only to God.¹⁰¹ God’s judgment of the wicked is just because he punishes only after observing (i.e., evaluating) their “household,” a metonymy for occupants and their ill-gotten gain. The proverb is similar to 3:33a.

Verse 13 continues the theme of divine judgment from the previous verse and now applies it to the merciless (v. 10). “Whoever closes his ear to the cry of the poor” (i.e., the merciless) will themselves cry out in vain at the time of their ruin, because God will not respond (cf. 1:28–29). Jesus taught that it is the merciful who will receive mercy (Matt 5:7; Luke 6:36).

Verse 14, in context, features the wicked briber. The synonymous parallelism of the versets indicates that the “gift” of verset A is intended as a “bribe” (verset B) and so is given (or accepted) “in the bosom” (i.e., clandestinely) to pervert justice. The briber committed an offense arousing the victim’s “anger”/“strong wrath,” perhaps resulting in the victim suing the offender in court. Instead of assuaging the victim’s wrath through righteous means (16:6; 15:1; 29:8), the briber tries to avoid a penalty by bribing court officials (29:4; cf. 15:27; 17:8, 23; 18:16; 19:6).

Verse 15 moves from justice perverted (v. 14) to justice performed—by God—which is joy to the righteous but terror to the wicked. The former who love God and serve neighbor, and often suffered in the process, rejoice because they can look forward to their vindication by God’s justice. The latter who do not fear God and abuse their neighbors are terrified, because they know that at any time justice will overthrow them (21:12; cf. 28:1).

Verse 16 describes the end of the journey of those who forsake the way of wisdom. “One who wanders” describes someone who has left the path of wisdom and meanders aimlessly looking for a place to rest. Ironically, he will find a place to rest in the “assembly of the dead” (cf. 2:18; 9:18).

According to verse 17, one way to wander from the way of wisdom is by being a hedonist who seeks pleasure as an end in itself. Verset B specifies the pleasures the hedonist seeks as “wine” for satisfying the appetite and “oil” for anointing the body, possibly a merism for the gamut of indulgences from gluttony to narcissism. “Will be poor” categorically states the outcome of hedonism. “Will not become rich” is litotes for becoming destitute.

Verse 18 sounds odd in stating that the wicked are the ransom for the righteous, since the righteous do not need a ransom. In context, however, the proverb explains why justice is a terror to the wicked (v. 15) and what the ruin of the hedonist entails (v. 17). The metaphor of “ransom” refers to the compensation paid to release someone from trouble and suggests the righteous are in trouble due to the schemes of the wicked. Nevertheless, God reverses this condition by offering the wicked as ransom for the righteous. Verset B, like 11:8b, explains how God causes the wicked to be the ransom for the righteous, namely, by taking the righteous out of trouble and setting the wicked in their place.

Verse 19 escalates the disastrous roof-top existence of the verbally abused husband of verse 9 to his catastrophic existence in “a desert land.” Not satisfied by driving her husband onto the corner of the roof, the quarrelsome wife, who is now also “angry,” continues pestering him until he flees the house completely. While the desert is filled with danger, it lacks the contentious wife, and that makes it preferable to anywhere her presence can be felt. The lord of the home (cf. Gen 18:12; 1Pet 3:6) becomes a creature of the desert. The proverb is warning sons to choose carefully whom they marry.

Verse 20 features another characteristic of the fool, namely, lack of restraint. The diligence and restraint of the wise ensure that they have a constant supply of provisions. “Treasure” can also be rendered as “supply (of food/grain)” that is harvested in the spring, and when combined with “oil,” which is pressed in the fall, becomes a merism for a continuous supply of provisions. But fools, who lack restraint and seek instant gratification, “gulp” their supplies down with no concern for the future and/or others (cf. 1Cor 11:20–22). The sage offers, as an example of the diligent wise, the ant, which prepares for the future by gathering and saving its food (6:6; 30:25).

Verse 21 explains why the dwellings of the wise are filled with supplies: they pursue “righteousness and kindness,” the two primary characteristics of covenant faithfulness. As a result, God (implied by the Qal imperfect) rewards them not only with physical provisions but also with eternal life, prosperity, and honor (i.e., social esteem). Verset B plays on the word “righteousness” in verset A. In the former, the word refers to conduct that conforms with God’s standards, and in the latter, to the consequences of that conduct, namely, prosperity from God. Jesus promised that those who pursue righteousness will be satisfied (Matt 5:6).

Verse 22 states another characteristic of the wise: they battle evil and triumph over it. Verset A depicts the wise engaging in the battle, and verset B depicts their victory. “City of the mighty” represents evil that fortifies and entrenches itself in society. Today it includes false ideologies and beliefs that dominate society, often with the support of government, media, and big business. Challenging the lies seems hopeless. Nevertheless, the wise person (ḥākām, singular) courageously mounts the attack upon evil. “Brings down the stronghold” depicts the total victory of the wise/righteous over the foolish/wicked. The grammar of the proverb presents the battle and victory as past events to highlight the inevitability of victory (NET). The proverb does not describe precisely how the wise fight against evil; that must be discerned from other proverbs (e.g., through fear of the LORD—8:13; 16:6; wise speech—5:1–2; kindness—25:21; strength—24:10–11; resilience—25:26). The point of the proverb is not that brains beat brawn, but that the wise engage with evil and triumph over it. The proverb, however, is stating things from an ultimate, not penultimate, perspective. In the penultimate period, it often appears that the wicked are triumphing over the righteous.

Verse 23 is linked with verse 22 by its use of military imagery: “guard.” While verse 22 depicts the offense mounted by the righteous-wise against evil, verse 23 depicts their defense against it.¹⁰² The righteous-wise protect themselves against danger by keeping careful watch over “their mouths and their tongues” (i.e., their speech; cf. 10:19; 13:3). Jesus warned that one would be justified or condemned by one’s words (Matt 12:36–37; cf. Jas 3:5–8).

Verse 24 shifts from the righteous-wise to their mortal enemy: the insolent, proud mocker (see Pss 86:14; 119:51, 69, 85, 122). Verset A depicts his character (“name”), and verset B depicts his behavior. The mocker acts with “the fury of pride.” The spiritual condition of pride makes the mocker hate all that is godly and righteous.

Verses 25–26 are a proverb pair depicting the self-destructive behavior of the sluggard in contrast to the life-promoting behavior of the righteous. The sluggard’s “desire”—a metonymy for the necessities of life—kills him because he refuses to work to obtain it. The proverb is not criticizing desires, but the refusal to work. By contrast, the righteous not only have plenty for themselves (v. 20) but also an abundance to share liberally with others. The contrast with the sluggard implies that the righteous are diligent, industrious, and generous.

Verse 27 describes the wicked worshipper who pretends to be pious to deceive others and possibly exploit them. Verset A, like 15:8a, repeats the axiom that God detests the “sacrifice” (i.e., worship) of the wicked. The wicked person performs the right actions out of a wrong heart. Verset B then argues from the lesser to the greater: “how much more” detestable to God is hypocritical worship when conducted with ulterior motives (bĕzimmâ). The Bible records several instances where faith was feigned to deceive others (e.g., 2Sam 15:7–13; 1Kgs 21:9–12; Prov 7:14–15; Matt 26:46–49; 1Thess 2:3–6).

Verse 28 envisions a court context where both a false witness and a careful listener testify. The former, who has already appeared in 19:5 and 9, is not a good listener (13:1b) and so gives untrue, careless, or willfully malicious testimony. His lies will be found out, and he will die, either by God’s or the community’s hand (cf. Deut 19:16–21). By contrast, one who listens attentively, a hallmark of wisdom (1:8; 13:1a; 20:12; 18:13) testifies “successfully” (lāneṣaḥ [NIV]; cf. Job 23:7; 36:7; Isa 25:8).

Verse 29 continues the court context of verse 28 by stating that even though the wicked person lies with a bold face, the righteous person, who listens carefully, discerns (i.e., sees through) the wicked person’s ways.¹⁰³

Verses 30 and 31, connected by the catchword “the LORD,” conclude the unit by returning to the theme of God’s sovereignty (see vv. 1 and 2). Verse 30, like verse 2, asserts that no human wisdom can successfully oppose God’s wisdom. Another way to say this is, “Wisdom consists in the knowledge that there is no ‘wisdom’ contrary to Yahweh.”¹⁰⁴ Verse 31, like verse 1, asserts God’s sovereignty over kings. Verse 1 asserted God’s sovereignty over the king’s heart; verse 31 asserts his sovereignty over the king’s army. In relation to verse 30, verse 31 functions as a practical illustration of human wisdom that opposes God. According to verset A, human wisdom prepares the warhorse—a synecdoche for the king’s entire military machine—and trusts it to win the battle. Verset B, however, warns against such confidence since it is God who ultimately determines who is victorious (Ps 20:7). The proverb does not preclude maintaining an army but warns the king and the people against forgetting God and trusting in their own wisdom (cf. 3:5–6).

The final unit of Collection II trumpets the themes of speech and wealth. Proverbs warning about wealth (ʿōšer) and the wealthy (ʿāšîr) frame the unit (vv. 1–2 and 15–16). The catchword “the LORD” punctuates the unit (vv. 2, 4, 12, 14).

Verse 1 teaches the disciple that attaining a good character is more important than attaining wealth. “A good name” is literally “a name,” but “good” is implied by the parallel “good favor” (ḥēn ṭôb̲; i.e., to be highly esteemed) in verset B. The proverb prioritizes social reputation over wealth. A good name is attained through wisdom (3:1–4; 13:15a; cf. Eccl 7:1).

Verse 2 teaches that although social and economic differences exist between people, as would be evident when “rich and poor meet,” these differences should not be used to segregate people, especially the poor, since all humans are created by God. The proverb is applicable through a fortiori to situations beyond the financial. If God does not exclude people based on external factors over which they have some control (e.g., poverty), how much more will he not exclude them over innate factors over which they have no control (e.g., race, sex, age, disability, etc.)? It is sin that separates one from God, not one’s socio-economic state. The proverb is weighted against the rich (ʿāšîr), who in Proverbs are always impious and oppressive to the poor (10:15; 28:11).

Verse 3 powerfully contrasts one of the fundamental differences between a wise and a foolish person. The wise person (lit. “the shrewd”; see comments on 1:4) discerns danger and avoids it, while the foolish (lit. “the uncommitted”) keep going and pay for it. Even birds know to avoid traps, but the uncommitted are stupider than birds (1:17; cf. 7:22–23). The proverb is similar to 27:12.

Verse 4 offers the answer to the uncommitted one’s problem, namely, to become wise by humbling himself and acquiring the fear of the LORD. Then he will not only possess the wisdom to avoid the traps of life but will also be rewarded with riches, honor, and eternal life.

Verse 5 escalates the danger facing the fool in verse 3. The path of the fool (lit. “the crooked”) is peppered with “thorns and snares.” The metaphors refer to dangers listed in the book, such as easy money, easy sex, laziness, extending surety to strangers, etc. Verset B shows the way of escape, namely, to guard one’s soul by, it implies, submitting to the discipline of the wise (see 2:1–22).

While verse 5 implied the disciple’s submission to wisdom, Verse 6 admonishes the teacher to diligently “train” the youth “in the way he should go,” namely, away from his innate folly and into wisdom. Such training is difficult but rewarding since the youth will persevere in wisdom even when old. The proverb, however, is not a guarantee. Other proverbs address children of godly parents who have strayed from wisdom (1:11–15; 2:20–33; 5:11–14). Nevertheless, surveys consistently show that most children of parents who raised them in the Christian faith continued in that faith when they were old.¹⁰⁵

Verse 7 states a harsh reality of life: the rich enslave the poor by granting them loans and then charging them exorbitant interest. The borrower will never be able to pay off the loan and ends up in perpetual servitude to the lender. The proverb is intended to motivate the disciple to be wise and use the skills of wisdom to attain self-sufficiency.

Verses 8 and 9 are closely connected by subject matter. Verse 8 warns of the judgment awaiting the oppressive rich of verse 7, and verse 9 provides a remedy for their oppressiveness in the meantime. God, the implied Agent of justice, will ensure that one who “sows injustice”—a figure for the schemes of the wicked to obtain illegitimate gain—will reap “calamity” (i.e., his gains will evanesce, leaving him exposed to disaster). As a result, his (the wicked person’s) “rod of . . . fury”—a figure for his power to tyrannize—will end.¹⁰⁶ In the meantime, the generosity of the righteous to the poor mitigates the damage the rich cause them (v. 9b; cf. Ps 112:9). As a result, the generous are themselves “blessed” by God with abundance (v. 9a; cf. 11:25).

Verses 10 and 11 are connected by the theme of community order, namely, who disrupts it (v. 10) and who safeguards it (v. 11). The one who disrupts it is the irredeemable “scoffer,” whose pugnaciousness destroys community harmony and so must be forcefully driven out (v. 10). The one who safeguards it is the wise king who maintains community order with the help of an advisor characterized by pure heart and gracious speech (v. 11). Verse 10 does not specify who is commanded to drive out the scoffer. The context, however, suggests that it is the king, guided by his wise advisors (20:26). The proverb pair motivates the youth through negative and positive examples not to be a community disruptor but to be a community builder by acquiring wisdom and gracious speech and assisting the king (22:29).

Verse 12, immediately following verse 11, again closely connects God and king in the establishment of justice (see 16:1–15; 20:8–11). God, the ultimate protector of wise speech, will, on the one hand, ensure that the words of the wise will prevail, while on the other, will subvert the speech of the treacherous. “The eyes of the LORD” is a synecdoche for the LORD himself. “Knowledge,” judging from its antithetic parallel in verset B—“words of the treacherous”—is a metonymy for “words of the wise” (cf. 22:17). The proverb encourages the disciple to be bold in speaking wisdom, even to the king. He needs it, and God protects it.

Verses 13–14 showcase two types of treacherous speech. The sluggard uses speech to obtain money illegitimately, and “strange women” use it to obtain sex illegitimately. The sluggard’s absurd claim that he cannot go to work because a lion will murder him in the town square is voiced to prevent others from forcing him to go to work, as then they would be responsible for his death. Instead, he implies, he should be supported by charity. “Strange women” (zarot; on which see 2:16–19) use speech to entice men to have adulterous sex with them. “Deep pit” denotes the deadly danger of the women’s speech. “The one with whom the LORD is angry” refers to someone who has sinned to the point that requires death. “Will fall into it” means that God will ensure that the offender follows the adulteress to death (7:21–27). The idea that God ordains a sinner’s death is biblical (Exod 4:21; 1Sam 2:25; 1Kgs 22:19–23; Ezek 3:20).

Verses 15–16, like verses 6 and 7, juxtapose a proverb on training youth with a proverb on the treatment of the poor, implying that part of the training of the child includes training in not oppressing the poor. Such training will also prevent him from incurring God’s anger as per verse 14b. Verse 15 adds the “rod of discipline” (i.e., the rod that imparts discipline) to the training of the child mentioned in verse 6 (see comments on 13:24). The claim that “folly” (i.e., moral corruption) is “bound up in the heart” of the child means that it is deeply embedded in his nature and difficult, but not impossible, to dislodge (contra the fool [27:22]). Verse 16 closely links removing folly from the child (v. 15) with maintaining justice by avoiding foolish ways of getting rich. Oppressing the poor and currying favor with the rich in order to get rich oneself is folly, because God, the invisible upholder of the moral order, will ensure that those who use these tactics end in poverty.

Section III is a distinct section as indicated by its own prologue (22:17–21), the claim “Have I not written you thirty sayings of counsel and knowledge?” (22:20), and by its literary form, which resembles the lessons of Collection I more than the sentence proverbs of Collection II and V. Collection III has striking similarities to the thirty sayings of the Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope (c. 1186–1069 BC), suggesting that Solomon adopted, adapted, and appended them to his own wisdom book.¹⁰⁷

This saying, which also functions as the prologue to Section III, commands and motivates the disciple to accept the words of the wise. Saying 1 consists of two couplets (vv. 17–18, 20–21) around a center line (v. 19). The first couplet commands the disciple to apply his ear and heart (i.e., to listen attentively) to the sages’ teaching, with the motivating promise that “it will be pleasant” (i.e., exceedingly satisfying to him and helpful to others; cf. 3:17) when he internalizes the wisdom (lit. “keep them in your belly”) and reproduces it when needed. The first couplet describes the complete cycle of wisdom’s transmission: the sages’ words move through the disciple’s ear, to his heart, then are stored in his belly and from there emerge through his lips to teach others.

The center line describes the theological motivation: “That your trust may be in the Lord.” Learning wisdom is never an end in itself; the ultimate purpose is to have a relationship with God and to serve others in helpful ways (2:1–11). According to Clifford “LORD” is the center word of the saying.¹⁰⁸

The final couplet describes what the sage has written, namely, “thirty sayings of (or “as”) counsel and knowledge,” and why he wrote them, namely, to form the disciple into a knowledgeable, ethical, and reliable source of wisdom to the royal court, “those who sent you” (see 22:29).

Sayings 2–11 form a decalogue arranged chiastically around saying 6:¹⁰⁹

2. Do not exploit the poor, for “the LORD pleads their case” (22:22–23)

3. Do not get involved with hotheads (22:24–25)

4. Do not become surety;—you will lose everything (22:26–27)

5. Do not move boundary stones (22:28)

6. The skilled stand before the king (22:29)

7–8. Do not be greedy for deceptive food or money (23:1–3, 4–5)

9. Do not eat with the stingy—you will vomit and lose everything (23:6–8)

10. Do not speak with fools (23:9)

11. Do not exploit the fatherless, for “[the LORD] will plead their case” (23:10–11)

Saying 6, the pivot, is the most important saying and states the primary result of the disciple’s internalization of the sayings: he will become an advisor to the king.

Saying 2 (22:22–23)

Saying 2 commands the disciple not to oppress the poor because God will prosecute their case and punish the oppressors. “Because he is poor” describes why they are an easy and tempting target for the powerful. “At the gate” refers to the poor being exploited through court proceedings (see 14:19; cf. Ruth 4:1–2). “For” introduces the reason for not exploiting the poor. When the courts deny them justice, the poor will cry out to God, who will hear and prosecute their case. With God as their Prosecutor, the oppressors have no hope of winning and will be subject to the lex talionis, “Life for life.”

Saying 3 (22:24–25)

This saying warns against associating with hotheads who are given to explosions of anger (v. 24a). The parallel in verse 24b describes the hothead as “a wrathful person,” suggesting that his temper tantrums stem from a deep character flaw. Hotheads lack restraint and are easily offended. They are fools in the strictest sense of the word (12:16). Verse 25 supplies the motivation for not associating with them: the disciple will be influenced by their ways and “entangle [himself] in a snare” (i.e., share their fatal destiny). This saying further interprets 13:20b, and along with 12:26 warns the disciple of the importance of choosing friends carefully (cf. 1:10–19).

Saying 4 (22:26–27)

This saying continues the consistent warnings in Proverbs against becoming surety for another (6:1–5; 11:15; 17:18; 20:16). Here the motivation to avoid it is that the surety will lose all he has. According to Garrett, “bed” is a metonymy for all his possessions.¹¹⁰

Saying 5 (22:28)

Saying 5 is similar to 15:25, which warns against seizing the land of the vulnerable. “Move the ancient landmark” is imagery for illegally annexing another’s land to one’s own. Verset B states the reason: land boundaries were determined by Joshua through the casting of the lot and thereby revealed God’s will (Josh 14–19). Furthermore, they were protected under the Mosaic Law (Deut 19:14; 27:17).

Saying 6 (22:29)

The pivotal saying of the decalogue assures the disciple that those who are competent in their occupation will work for kings instead of lesser officials. “Do you see” calls the disciple to observe for himself that what the sage states is true, namely, that the skillful advance to serve in the highest office. The proverb does not specify any particular occupation, but taken in context with the prologue, the saying aims to motivate the disciple to study wisdom and become a sage of such competence that he will be conscripted into the king’s service (see 22:11).

Sayings 7 and 8 (23:1–3, 4–5)

The concept of false appearances links Sayings 7 and 8. In the former it is “deceptive food”; in the latter it is deceptive riches. Saying 7 admonishes the disciple to discern carefully the nature of a situation and so act appropriately. The situation in this case is dining with a superior. Two things must be discerned: the intent of the feast and the disciple’s own character flaws—in this case whether the disciple is given to gluttony. The purpose of the superior’s invitation may be to test the disciple’s character, in which case the “delicacies” are “deceptive” (i.e., intended not to delight but to discern). In such a situation, if the disciple is given to gluttony, then the appropriate action is to “put a knife to your throat.” The hyperbole signifies total abstention, which serves to prove that one is not a glutton. Testing people to determine their character is a common theme in the Bible and was practised by God and humans (cf. Gen 22:1–2; 42–43; Exod 16:4; Deut 13:3–4; 2Chron 32:31; John 6:5–6).

Saying 8 commands the disciple to stop striving to become rich because riches are a deceptive source of security. The imagery comparing wealth to an eagle taking flight signifies the fleeting nature of wealth. Wealth can be lost in an instant and, therefore, is a foolish source of security. Wealth is a blessing when attained through righteousness, hard work, and the application of wisdom (3:16; 8:18; 10:22; 14:23; 22:4; 28:20). When attained by wickedness, however, it is a curse (10:2; 11:4, 18; 20:17; 28:20).

Saying 9 (23:6–8)

Saying 9 continues the theme of false food. Here the saying warns against dining on the delicacies of a stingy host who may outwardly feign generosity but is inwardly hostile to the guest. The Egyptian Instruction of Any may provide context for the meaning of this saying: “Attend to your position be it low or high; it is not good to press forward, step according to rank. Do not intrude on a man in his house, enter when you have been called; he may say, ‘Welcome,’ with his mouth yet deride you in his thoughts. One gives food to one who is hated, supplies to one who enters uninvited.”¹¹¹ Any may be warning against unexpectedly entering a person’s house in order to negotiate a benefit. The surprised host will have to provide hospitality since custom requires it, but inwardly he will be livid at the impropriety and unwilling to grant any favors. In fact, he may later demote the brash guest. Verse 8 states the consequences once the guest realizes his mistake: he will vomit all the food—hyperbolic for being disgusted—and will have wasted his words to win the host’s favor.

Saying 10 (23:9)

Verset A prohibits the disciple from educating a fool, and verset B provides the reason. Fools believe they know it all and so have no desire to be taught (12:15; 15:5; 18:2; 26:12, and passim). They “scorn” (i.e., mock at) wisdom (9:7–8). The saying teaches the disciple to discern spiritually a person’s receptiveness to wisdom before speaking to him. 26:5, however, states that fools must be countered with wisdom.

Saying 11 (23:10–11)

The final saying of the decalogue returns to the theme of illegally appropriating the land of the vulnerable (22:28; cf. 1Kgs 21:1–16), adding the category of the “fatherless” to the poor. Like the poor, the fatherless were vulnerable to exploitation since they lacked parental protection. Verse 11 gives the reason for prohibiting the crime: their “Deliverer (g̲ōʾălām; i.e., God) is strong” (i.e., powerful and possesses all the necessary resources to accomplish the task); “and he will plead their cause against you” (i.e., the landgrabber will be found guilty; see 22:23).

Saying 12 begins a new unit on being a wise son. The seven sayings of this unit are similar to the Prologue of Proverbs and the Prologue to the Thirty Sayings of the Wise.

Saying 12 (23:12)

The introductory saying commands the son to “apply” (lit. “bring”) his heart and ears to wisdom (lit. mûsār; “discipline”). The heart and ears work together in the process of learning (2:2; 4:20–23). The ears receive the wisdom, and the heart stores it. Nevertheless, the regenerate heart must open the ears to receive the wisdom that reshapes the heart. The process is circular. The two organs are combined in Solomon’s prayer for a “hearing heart” (1Kgs 3:9).

Saying 13 (23:13–14)

Saying 12 admonished the disciple to take discipline; Saying 13 admonishes him to dispense discipline (mûsār) to youth. Verse 13b explains the manner of disciplining as “striking with a rod” (i.e., a painful but not fatal application of force to prevent repeated acts of folly) and assures him that such chastisement is not fatal. Verse 14 adds the further assurance that physical chastisement will save the child from death (lit. šəʾôl). Proverbs exhibits great love for the child, while recognizing that painful physical discipline to train the child in wisdom is loving and necessary and is not child abuse when properly dispensed (13:24; 22:15; 29:15).

Saying 14 (23:15–16)

Saying 14 is a couplet. The first couplet (v. 15) motivates the child to become wise by conditioning the parents’ joy on the child’s acquiring wisdom (cf. 27:11). The second couplet (v. 16) escalates the parents’ joy to exuberance when the child “speaks what is right” (i.e., proclaims God’s moral order). The proverb assumes that children normally desire the joy of their parents. In a culture where that is not the case, where children despise parents, the proverb loses currency (cf. Matt 10:21; Rom 1:30; 1Tim 3:2). If human parents rejoice when their children demonstrate godly wisdom, how much more will God rejoice over his wise children?

Saying 15 (23:17–18)

This saying teaches the disciple about right and wrong desire. Hebrew qānāʾ is translated “envy” (i.e., passionate desire) when the object desired is wrong, and “zeal” when it is right. Here the child is commanded not to let his heart passionately desire the lifestyle and possessions of “sinners” (e.g., 1:10–14). Instead, his “zeal,” implied in verset B, should always be for the fear of the LORD and his wisdom. Verse 18 states the reason. Pursuing the fear of the LORD results in a blessed and eternal future. “Your hope will not be cut off” is a litotes meaning it will be fulfilled and continue forever.

Saying 16 (23:19–21)

Saying 16 commands the child to point his heart in the right way (i.e., the way of wisdom as delineated in the Thirty Sayings) in order to avoid sinners. Verse 20 describes the sinners as drunkards and gluttons. Drunkenness and gluttony also describe the rebellious child in Deuteronomy 21:20. According to Fox, drunkenness and gluttony represent all manner of vices by the figure of pars pro toto.¹¹² Verse 21 provides the reason: drunkenness and gluttony lead to poverty not only because they are expensive vices, but also because they induce a state of stupor, depriving addicts of the ability to work and/or to protect their property.

Saying 17 (23:22–25)

The inclusio “your father . . . your mother” (vv. 22, 25) frames this saying and escalates the theme of Saying 14 urging the son to make his parents glad by attaining wisdom. By metonymy, the command “listen to your father” includes the mother, and the command “do not despise your mother” includes the father. Similarly, the two temporal markers—“when she is old,” “who bore you”—form a merism that admonishes the child to honor both parents from his birth to their deaths. The first couplet (vv. 22–23) admonishes the child to submit to the parent’s teaching; the second couplet (vv. 24–25) provides the motivation: a wise child will bring exuberant joy to the parents. “Do not despise your mother” is a litotes meaning to submit wholeheartedly to the parent’s teaching. “Buy truth and do not sell it” is figurative for no price being too high to obtain the parents’ wisdom and no price high enough to give it up.

Saying 18 (23:26–28)

The final saying of the unit warns the son against sex with the adulteress¹¹³ (see 2:15–19; 5:1–23; 6:20–35; 7:1–27; 9:13–18; 22:14). Verse 27 describes her danger and verse 28 her efficiency. The only protection against her is for the son to surrender fully to the parents’ wisdom (v. 26). Three images are used to describe the danger of the adulteress. “Deep pit” represents a deadly trap and “narrow well” a source of water that frustrates attempts to access it. The adulteress feigns love but will not provide the commitment that it requires. The image of “bandit” likens the adulteress to one who robs and kills. Verse 28b confirms her success in leading men to be “unfaithful” to God and to their marriages.

Sayings 19 and 20 elaborate on Sayings 16 and 15, respectively.

Saying 19 (23:29–35)

Saying 19 is a brilliant, humorous poem that first exposes the folly of drunkenness (vv. 29–34), and then the folly of the drunkard, by quoting his utterance, that despite its self-destructive effects, he cannot wait to get drunk again. The poem’s point is to provide vivid motivation for the admonition in verse 31.

Verse 29 poses a riddle with six questions all beginning with the anaphora “Who has?” All the questions relate to negative behavior and its consequences. The purpose of the riddle is to get the disciple to identify who fits the bill in all of the questions. Verse 30 provides the answer: those given to excessive drinking.

The prohibition in verse 31 assumes a person who is excessively fascinated by the charming, seductive properties of wine and so drinks to excess. The Bible speaks of wine both positively and negatively (positively: Gen 14:18; Deut 7:13; 11:14; 33:28; Ps 104:14–15; Prov 3:9–10). Here the negative effects are in view (also 20:1; 31:4–7), and the person given to excessive fascination with wine is commanded to nip it in the bud. Verse 32 states the reason: all of wine’s fascinating properties are deceptive, for like a snake that hides and strikes without warning, so wine will suddenly destroy the imbiber.

Verses 33 and 34 address the disciple directly with the nightmarish results of drunkenness: hallucinations, vile visions, perverse talk, and nausea like that encountered by one sleeping in a ship on the turbulent high seas, or on top of the mast, where the rocking is most severe.

In verse 35 the sage has the drunkard speak to reveal the insanity and self-destructive nature of drunkenness: “They hit me . . . they beat me” reveals the drunkard’s self-destructiveness, since normal people feel pain and do what is necessary to avoid it. Instead, the drunkard is determined that when he wakes up, he will do it all over again.

Saying 20 (24:1–2)

Saying 20 aims to safeguard the disciple from joining with sinners by showing how repulsive their actions are. Two prohibitions are given in verse 1: “Do not envy the wicked . . . do not desire their company” (cf. 3:31; 23:17; 24:19). The sage assumes that sinners have tempting traits and successful outcomes that cause others to envy them. Otherwise, the prohibitions are unnecessary. Verse 2 provides two reasons not to envy the sinners: they are so violent and deceitful that the righteous are naturally repelled by them (see comments on 4:10–19).

Sayings 21 to 25 are united by the theme of wisdom’s role in bestowing prosperity and power. Following the introductory saying trumpeting wisdom’s ability to provide prosperity (vv. 3–4), sayings about “strength/power” (kōaḥ) frame the unit (vv. 5, 10).

Saying 21 (24:3–4)

Rather than envying evil men who fill their houses with treasure obtained by wickedness (Saying 20), the son is told to utilize “wisdom,” “understanding,” and “knowledge” to build a home and acquire wealth. “Wisdom,” “understanding,” and “knowledge” are the same instruments, listed in the same order, that God used to establish the good creation in 3:19–20. The saying teaches that as God used these instruments to establish a wise world, the son must use them to establish a wise home.

Saying 22 (24:5–6)

Not only does wisdom enable one to build a wise home, but it also endows one with the ability to protect it. Verse 5 asserts that the wise and the knowledgeable are equipped with might and strength; and verse 6 asserts that they are also endowed with the ability to strategize successfully. The saying is applicable not only to contexts of war but also to any conflict (e.g., Saying 25). On “many counsellors,” see 11:14.

Saying 23 (24:7)

This saying sharpens the previous one that commended the strategy of wise counsellors. Fools, by contrast, should never be allowed to advise on public affairs since they have rejected wisdom, and so their ideas are useless and dangerous. “Wisdom is too high for a fool” means that wisdom is unattainable by those who think they know it all and lack the fear of the LORD. “In the gate” is imagery for the city centre where public policy is determined and/or where the courts convene (see Saying 2).

Saying 24 (24:8–9)

Rather than being welcomed to provide counsel, fools who plot evil should be publicly labelled as “schemers.” Their schemes are folly and sin. Instead of inviting their opinions, people should detest them as “mockers,” the most hardened of fools. This saying warns the godly community of the intense danger that fools pose to the welfare of the community.

Saying 25 (24:10–12)

Saying 22 asserted that wisdom endows one with strength. Saying 25 illustrates it with an example of a crisis that calls for might. In verse 10, the sage warns the son that if he fails in a time of crisis, then his might—and therefore his wisdom—is meager. The implied lesson is that the son should ensure that he is wise enough to handle any crisis. Verses 11 provides an example of a crisis, and verse 12 provides an example of his failure.

In verse 11 the innocent are being mortally threatened by the wicked. “Deliver” and “Rescue” command the son to intervene. The nature of the threat is unexplained and so could apply to any situation with similar circumstances; nor does the command specify how the son should rescue them. His wisdom will dictate the best means: money, force, negotiation, or judicial intervention.

Verse 12 warns the son against failing to act during the crisis and then avoiding responsibility. “We did not know” claims ignorance as the reason for disobeying the command. God, however, exposes the lie. “He who weighs the heart” refers to God who knows one’s innermost thoughts (see 21:2). “He who guards your life” contrasts God who protects the innocent with the disciple who did not. “Will he not repay . . . according to their work?” means that, in quid pro quo fashion, God will not protect the lives of those who do not protect the lives of the innocent.

Sayings 26 to 30, the final subunit of the Thirty Sayings, are framed by the address “My son” (vv. 14, 21). The introductory saying (vv. 14–15) calls on the son to accept wisdom, and the concluding saying calls on him to fear the LORD and the king. The subunit is made up of five couplets in which two commands/prohibitions occur in the odd verses and the motivation/promise in the even verses.

Saying 26 (24:13–14)

This saying compares physically eating honey, which is both sweet and nutritious, with spiritually acquiring wisdom, which is both sweet to the soul and grants everlasting life. The commands to “eat honey,” “[eat] honeycomb,” (v. 13) are figurative for acquiring wisdom (v. 14), but do not exclude literally eating honey (16:24). For “There is a future . . . your hope will not be cut off,” see comments on 23:18.

Saying 27 (24:15–16)

This saying has two prohibitions forbidding the son from joining with the wicked to plunder the righteous (v. 15). The reason is that although the righteous are completely ruined by the attacks—“fall seven times”—they will rise again after the final judgment (v. 16). The wicked, by contrast, will fall “in times of calamity” (i.e., the final judgment; see 1:33) and never rise again. The proverb assures the righteous that though they suffer for a time under evil, evil will not defeat them ultimately (cf. Rom 5:3–5; Heb 11).

Saying 28 (24:17–18)

Although God has ordained the destruction of the wicked, this saying prohibits the righteous from gloating over their demise (v. 17). The implied reason is that although God punishes the wicked, he takes no pleasure in it (Ezek 18:23; 33:11, 32; cf. 1Tim 2:4; 2Pet 3:9). Verse 18 provides the rationale: God considers it “evil in his eyes,” and so will postpone judging the wicked. The implied result is that the wicked will remain to continue oppressing the righteous until the latter are humbled. The purpose of the saying is not to teach disciples how to ensure that their enemy is judged (i.e., by not doing anything to forestall it), but to teach them that judgement of the wicked, though certain for the unrepentant, is not something over which they should rejoice.

Saying 29 (24:19–20)

This saying assures the son that even though the judgment of the wicked is postponed (see Saying 28), they will be destroyed in the end. “Do not fret,” along with “do not be envious,” occurs also in Psalm 37:1, 8, and means to refrain from getting angry. For not envying the wicked, see comments on 3:31 and Sayings 15 and 20. The combination suggests these are the two most common emotions one feels towards the wicked. The rationale is stated in verse 20: the wicked “have no future” (i.e., they will be annihilated). By contrast the righteous have a future, and their hope will endure forever (Sayings 26, 27).

Saying 30 (24:21–22)

The final saying admonishes the son to fear the LORD and the king and not to get involved in rebellion against them. We follow the NIV gloss of the difficult Hebrew participle šônîm (lit. “those who change”) in verse 21b as “rebellious officials.” The son is warned not to get involved with such officials. The rationale is given in verse 22: God and the king will not tolerate rebellion but will bring unexpected and limitless disaster on the rebels.

This collection is demarcated from the others by the heading “These also are [sayings]¹¹⁴ of the wise” (24:23a). The heading is written in prose, further demarcating it from the poetry of the sayings. “Of the wise” (laḥăkāmîm) means that these sayings were also authored by the sages who authored the Thirty Sayings (22:17, 20). They were added to the book with Solomon’s approval. The “son” is not identified as the addressee but is implied. Based on the admonitions, we detect six sayings in this collection, connected in an alternating pattern:

A. Being a good judge (24:23b–25)

B. Speaking honestly (24:26)

C. Being a good worker (24:27)

A’. Being a false witness (24:28)

B’. Speaking falsely (24:29)

C’. Being a bad worker (24:30–34)

Verses 23b–25 pertain to being an honest judge and the community’s reaction to corrupt and honest judges. The saying addresses the son who may be a budding court official. “To show partiality . . . is not good” (v. 23b) means it is bad when judgment is rendered based on who people are instead of on what they have done. This nullifies the current conception of “social justice” that tempers verdicts and sentences based on a person’s ethnicity, economic position, sexual orientation, etc. Biblical law requires that such considerations are not operative when justice is rendered (cf. Exod 23:3, 6; Lev 19:15; Deut 1:17; Prov 6:30–31). The portrayal of justice as a woman wearing a blindfold is meant to convey that justice does not care who people are, only about what they have done.

Verses 24–25 provide the motivation to be an honest judge by pointing out that the community curses corrupt judges but blesses honest ones. The implication is that the son will want to attract the latter reaction and so will strive to be an honest judge.

Verse 26 compares truthful speech to a kiss. Just as a kiss expresses kindness and love, so telling the truth to others is an expression of kindness and love. Leviticus 19:17–18 connects loving one’s neighbors with telling them the truth.

Verse 27 commands the son first to secure his income and then to build his household. The saying uses farming as its example of an income-producing occupation but can be extended to any paying vocation. “Build your house” includes such things as marrying, constructing, or purchasing a house and filling it with food, furniture, and progeny. These require money and so require one first to secure an income.

Verse 28 returns to the court setting, this time admonishing witnesses that they should not testify against their neighbors without cause. The proverb implies that there are times when it is right to testify against a neighbor. The saying does not specify what a right cause is, but other proverbs describe the character of true witnesses (e.g., 12:17; 14:5, 25; 21:28). Merely being offended by another’s words or actions is not a proper cause to testify against him (cf. Dan 6:13; Esth 3:8–11; Matt 27:13). Jesus warned the disciples that they would be falsely accused because of him (Mark 13:9–13; Matt 5:11–12; Acts 18:12; 1Pet 3:16).

Verse 29 features a witness who seeks revenge by testifying falsely against another. Such a one exemplifies the prohibition of verse 28. Using the courts as a means of seeking personal vengeance, as opposed to legitimate justice, is folly and wickedness (6:19; 19:5, 9). One reason why it is wrong is that the vengeance-seeker will need to hide his true motives from the court, which will normally involve lying, either by commission or omission.

Verses 30–34

The final saying is a poem satirizing the sluggard and the folly of faineance.¹¹⁵ The poem depicts a sage striding past the vineyard of a snoring sluggard and observing that his once-verdant vineyard has turned into a field of weeds, and its once-watchful walls are now a stack of stones (vv. 30–31). In verse 32, the poem’s centerline, the sage applies his mind to understand what he observed—“I saw and considered it . . . I looked . . .” He gains an insight—“I . . . received instruction” (i.e., a lesson)—and articulates it in verses 33–34: untimely naps enable personified poverty, which never sleeps, to plunder all you inherited (cf. 6:10–11). The implied answer to this deadly situation is to recognize that without constant vigilance and diligence one’s life and life-work will degenerate into disorder. The sluggard lacks this diligence; therefore, chaos will overtake his life, and he will die.

The prose heading, “These also are proverbs of Solomon . . .” (v. 1a), added by the final editor of the book signals a new section. According to the final editor, the proverbs in this section were “copied” by “The men of Hezekiah king of Judah” (715–686 BC). “Copied” probably refers to the whole process of preserving, collecting, arranging into clusters, and appending these proverbs to the book as it existed in Hezekiah’s time. The proverbs in this section resemble those of Collection II and can be subdivided into smaller units.

Words referring to the monarch frame this unit (“King” [v. 2b]; “ruler” [v. 15a]). It is probable that the proverbs of this subunit were originally addressed to up-and-coming officials to teach them how to behave wisely in the royal court and warn them of foolish, risky behavior. Within this unit, verses 6–15 comprise a subunit of six proverbs. The first three proverbs describe improper behavior (vv. 6–10), and the last three describe wise behavior (vv. 11–15)

Verses 2–3 form a proverb pair establishing the hierarchical relationship between God, king, and subjects. Verse 2 describes what gives “glory” (i.e., social esteem, awe) to God and to the king. In relation to God, it is his inscrutability that makes him awesome in people’s view. God chooses to “conceal things” so that mortals will never fully understand his motives and purposes (Deut 29:29; cf. Eccl 8:17; Isa 45:15). A god who is fully known is no god at all.

Similarly, what makes the king awesome is his ability “to search things out” and so to comprehend everything pertaining to his kingdom—both administrative and judicial. When it comes to leaders, “Ignorance is bliss” is not an applicable proverb.

Verse 3 affirms that the king’s “heart” (i.e., his thoughts and motives) is inscrutable to his subjects. Just as the cosmos cannot be plumbed by mortal minds, so the king’s mind is incomprehensible to his subjects. This characteristic grants a certain unpredictability to the king’s thoughts and actions, which engenders awe in people. A leader who is fully predictable is no leader at all.

Verses 4–5 narrow the king’s action of searching things out (v. 3) to the removal of wicked officials from the court. Verse 4 functions as an analogy for verse 5, suggesting that just as silver ore requires a smith to purify it before he can use the metal to make something valuable, so too kingdoms require the purifying work of wise leaders if they are to endure. Verse 5 specifies the purifying work of the king as eliminating wicked (i.e., corrupt, self-serving) officials from the kingdom (cf. Jer 6:29–30). Jesus taught that at his return he will eliminate the wicked (Matt 13:24–29). In the meantime, church leaders are tasked with keeping the church safe from unrepentant sinners and heretics (Acts 20:28–31; 1Cor 5:2; 2Pet 2;1–3; Jude 3–24).

The next ten verses comprise six proverbs advising young officials on proper behavior in the royal court. The first three proverbs warn against improper behavior (vv. 6–10), and the last three affirm wise behavior (vv. 11–15).

Improper Behavior

Verses 6–7b warn budding officials not to promote themselves through dubious methods, but to wait patiently for advancement. “Do not exalt yourself (NIV) . . . or stand in the place of” forbids self-promotion of any kind, whether through words or by physically placing oneself in the “place of the great” (i.e., where higher officials gather). To be told, in front of others, to get back to one’s place is humiliating. Better to wait to be promoted, since then the promotion will be a matter of the recognition of one’s skill and competence (cf. 22:29). This warning implicitly commends patience, which is a virtue of the wise (14:29; 16:30). Jesus paraphrased this proverb in Luke 14:7–11.

Verses 7c–8 further commend patience by warning against going to court hastily—inadequately prepared and without all the evidence. “What your eyes have seen” refers to something suspicious that the courtier observed. But even this should not be brought to court without proper corroboration and preparation. There may be other explanations for what was observed. And if such is true, one will lose the case and suffer severe harm to one’s reputation and possibly even jeopardise one’s career. The proverb implicitly advises meticulous preparation before going to court. Jesus taught his disciples to reconcile with their adversaries before going to court (Matt 5:25; Luke 12:58).

Verses 9–10 warn courtiers against winning at all costs. Here the context is judicial, as suggested by the word “case” (riv, “dispute,” often in a legal sense). Courtiers are warned when disputing in court to ensure that they do not reveal a third party’s secrets, as that will cause him “who hears” (i.e., the judge) to rule against them, resulting in shame and ruined reputations.

Wise Behavior

Verses 11–12 teach officials to give decisions, including rebukes where necessary, that are wise, eloquent, and fitting. Verse 11 compares a fitting decision with an exquisite piece of jewelry. The metaphor “apples of gold in settings of silver” refers to the correct matching of the beautiful gold sculpture of apples to its equally exquisite setting of silver. So too a good decision (apples of gold) fits the circumstances (silver settings). According to verse 12, a good word may sometimes take the form of a rebuke. In that case it also requires a “listening ear” (i.e., a listener who is willing to accept it). The metaphor “gold ring . . . ornament of gold” compares a rebuke that is given in the right way at the right time with a beautiful and valuable earring. In sum, the saying teaches the official to speak wisely at all times, whether in rendering decisions or rebukes, and implicitly exhorts disciples to receive the rebukes of the wise.

Verses 13–14 teach courtiers to be reliable. Verse 13 likens a reliable envoy to the coolness of snow “in the time of harvest” (i.e., the hot summer months). The point of the simile is refreshment. Just as the coolness of snow refreshes laborers in the hot summer, so too messengers who faithfully carry out their duties energize the souls of their employers. Verse 14 complements verse 13 by providing the contrasting example of an unreliable person, who promises a gift but does not carry through. The disappointment he creates is compared with “clouds and wind without rain.” In Israel people were glad to see clouds and wind, since it meant rain was coming. If it did not rain, their disappointment was great. In sum, the saying teaches disciples to be reliable and to keep their word.

Verse 15 teaches courtiers the power of patience and gentle speech. The jarring paradox of breaking a bone with a tongue teaches that, through “patience” and “a soft tongue” (i.e., wise, gentle speech), a “hard bone” (i.e., a difficult ruler) can be broken (i.e., caused to change his mind).

Proverbs warning against eating too much honey (v. 16, 27) frame this section that warns the disciple against behaviors that cause conflict.

Verses 16–17 teach that even good things, if overindulged in, turn bitter. Verse 16 uses the example of eating too much honey to teach moderation in friendships in verse 17. Even nutritious honey, if overindulged in, will negate its good effects and cause vomiting. Similarly, neighborliness (i.e., friendship) is pleasant and beneficial but, if overindulged in by constant visits, will sour, and the friend will despise you. The proverb teaches moderation and self-control in all things.

Verses 18–20 are united by their form: metaphors in the A versets describe an antisocial behavior in the B versets. Verse 18 compares the deadly effect of a person who lies in court to a neighbor’s detriment with three deadly weapons: “war club,” “sword,” and “arrow.” Just as all three cause death, so too does the liar. Verse 19 compares an unreliable neighbor who fails in a time of crisis with the unreliability of a rotten tooth and lame foot. Just as these cannot be counted on for the life-essential acts of eating and walking, so too is the unreliable friend who fails when most needed. Verse 20 compares an insensitive, foolish speaker who sings jolly songs to a depressed heart with the foolish acts of taking off a jacket on a cold day and pouring vinegar on an open wound. Just as these acts exacerbate pain, so too does the insensitive speaker.

Verses 21–22 teach the disciple to resolve conflicts, not intensify them, by doing good, not evil, to an enemy. Verse 21 prohibits taking vengeance against an enemy by withholding life-saving essentials from him. Instead, it commands the disciple to take care of his enemy’s needs. The reason the person became an enemy is unstated, and therefore irrelevant. Verse 22 provides two reasons for the command. First, showing good to an enemy may cause him to feel shame and guilt, with the implication that he will be open to repent and reconcile. Second, such behaviour pleases the LORD and earns his reward. The imagery of “burning coals” implies pain and refers to pangs of guilt that an enemy will feel when he receives good and not evil from the disciple. The Bible prohibits taking personal revenge against one’s enemies (Exod 23:4; Lev 19:18; Deut 32:35; Prov 20:22; 24:17–18, 29), but this proverb goes further and commands showing compassion to them (cf. Matt 5:44; Rom 12:14, 17–21; 1Thess 5:15).

Verses 23 concentrically (in the Hebrew text) presents a real-world event in verset A to illustrate the abstract topic in verset B.

A. The north wind

B. brings forth

C. rain,

C’. and an angry face

B’. [gapped: is caused by]

A’. a secretive tongue

Rain from a north wind is deceptive since in Israel rain is normally brought by west winds. Similarly, a “secretive tongue” is deceptive since it feigns honesty to people’s faces but speaks lies behind their backs. The damage the victims feel is reflected on their faces.

Verse 24 repeats 21:9. See the interpretation there.

In verse 25 the rejuvenating effects of cold water on the physical body are used to illustrate the psychological rejuvenation caused by good news. When someone is physically fatigued and hot, cold water is the precise therapeutic that revives and energizes. Similarly, psychological anxiety about a matter in a distant place is relieved when good news finally arrives from there. The good report energizes the hearer to keep going. The proverb is similar to 25:13.

Verse 26 compares a righteous person who caves before the wicked with precious water sources that are made useless by pollution. Just as a city depends on water for physical survival, so it depends on the righteous for wise leadership and justice. When the righteous cave to the wicked instead of ruling over them, they become like “a muddied spring or a polluted fountain,” sources of life that have become useless. The reason why the righteous cave is not stated but may include battle fatigue, fear, or that they love the praise of people more than praise from God (cf. John 12:43). The proverb warns that current righteousness does not guarantee future righteousness, as even Solomon discovered (1Kgs 11:1–8; 2Kgs 23:13). One’s righteousness must be maintained through constant fear of the LORD and devotion to his wisdom.

Verse 27a forms an inclusio with verse 16a and makes the same point, that moderation and self-control are marks of wisdom. Verset B, however, is notoriously difficult. The Hebrew consists only of three nouns, which translated literally read, “And the investigation of their glory [is] glory.” What this means, and how it is related to verset A, is debated. Here we follow the NIV rendering: “nor is it honorable to search out matters that are too deep.”¹¹⁶ “Matters that are too deep” refer to the ways of God as described in verses 2–3 (cf. Deut 29:29; Ps 131). When it comes to these, the proper human response is awe and the fear of the LORD.

This section profiles seven morally corrupt people in order to warn the disciple not to become like them or to be hoodwinked by them: the unrestrained (25:28), the fool (26:1–12), the sluggard (26:13–16), the meddler (26:17), the deceiver (26:18–19), the slanderer (26:20–22), and the hypocrite (26:23–28).

The Unrestrained (25:28)

Verse 28 features the person who lacks the self-control bestowed by wisdom. Such a person is compared with a city whose protecting outer wall has been demolished, leaving the city vulnerable to invasion. “Self-control” protects one from succumbing to one’s own innate sinful desires (Mark 7:21–22). These latent passions, which are often stimulated by temptations from without (cf. Gen 4:6–7), would soon overwhelm the person who lacked self-control. In the New Testament, self-control is one of the fruits of the Holy Spirit (Gal 5:22–23) and was rigorously exercised by the apostle Paul (1Cor 9:25–27).

The Fool (26:1–12)

The word “fool” (k^esîl; k^esîlîm [pl.]) occurs in every verse of this unit, except verse 2, leading to its designation “The Book of Fools.” The theme of the unit is what is fitting and unfitting for a fool.¹¹⁷ The evaluation of what is “fitting” and “unfitting” implies a moral standard, which is the standard revealed in Proverbs. The unit can be subdivided into an introduction (vv. 1–3), body (vv. 4–10), and conclusion (vv. 11–12).

Introduction (26:1–3)

Verse 1 uses the real-life examples of “snow in summer or rain in harvest,” either of which, though welcome at proper times, is unfitting, even disastrous, during harvest, to illustrate the social reality that giving honor (i.e., positive social recognition) to a fool is similarly disastrous. Snow in summer indicates that something is wrong in the created order, and rain during harvest will cause the crops to rot, resulting in disaster. Similarly, honoring fools, instead of rebuking them (v. 5) or caning them (v. 3), is inappropriate and indicates that the times are evil. It is a morally twisted society that honors fools.

Verse 2 does not mention the fool but complements verse 1 by its example of something unfitting. An underserved curse is a curse of an innocent victim. It is compared with birds that flutter but do not land. Similarly, the underserved curse will not “land” (i.e., take effect) on the intended victim. The verse may also have the fool in mind as the one uttering the curse of the wise, in which case the wise need not worry since God will negate it (cf. Num 23:11–12, 25–26; 24:10–13).

Verse 3 names what is fitting for a fool, namely, the same harsh discipline (“whip”) that keeps brute beasts in check. In sum, in verse 1 something good (honor) is given to someone bad (fool), in verse 2 something bad (a curse) is wrongfully given to someone good (a wise person), and in verse 3, something bad (physical discipline) is given to someone bad (fool).¹¹⁸

Body (26:4–10)

The body consists of two sections. Verses 4–5 advise correcting the fool, and verses 6–10 advise not honoring the fool.

Verses 4–5 have long been noted for their apparent contradiction. They can be harmonized, however, by noting the differing purposes of the admonitions. Verse 4 warns the wise not to answer the fool in a foolish manner, i.e., arrogantly, rashly, falsely, ineptly, etc. Verse 5 admonishes the wise to correct the fool, albeit in a wise way, so that the fool’s folly does not carry the day. Both proverbs are true and applicable simultaneously to the same situation. Fools must be answered, but in a wise, not foolish, way.

Duane Garrett has noted the chiastic arrangement of verses 6–10:¹¹⁹

A. Committing important business to a fool (6)

B. A proverb in a fool’s mouth (7)

X. Honoring a fool (8)

B’. A proverb in a fool’s mouth (9)

A’. Committing important business to a fool (10)

The pivot reveals the subunit’s main idea: honoring fools is foolish (v. 8).

Verses 6, 10 (A and A’) use exaggerated sarcasm to warn the disciple not to honor fools by hiring them to conduct important business. The employer who hires a fool is as absurd as a person who cuts off his own feet. The employer thought the fool would help his business, but instead the fool’s folly will destroy the business and cripple the employer (v. 6). But even worse, an employer who hires a fool, or any passerby without proper vetting, endangers all of society. Such employers are as reckless and dangerous to society as random shooters (v. 10).

Verses 7, 9 (B and B’) use vivid imagery to describe the uselessness and danger of attempting to educate fools by teaching them proverbs. A proverb (i.e., wisdom) spoken by a fool is compared with a lame man’s dangling legs, which cannot carry weight and so do him no good. Similarly, merely speaking proverbs does the fool no good because he lacks the fear of the LORD that gives the proverbs their weight and authority (v. 7). But even worse, a fool spouting proverbs endangers society because the fool will use them to harm, not help, society. It is similar to the carnage created by a drunkard wielding a thornbush, or, to modernize the imagery, a drunk getting behind the wheel of a car (v. 9).

Verse 8 (The pivot X) shames one who honors fools by comparing the former with one who ties a stone into a sling. Such a person is stupid because he does not understand that for the sling to work, the stone must be free to fly out when the sling is released. A bound stone would also make the sling dangerous, as it could circle around and hit the slinger’s head. Similarly, the person who honors fools endangers himself and is stupid.

Conclusion (26:11–12)

The conclusion uses vivid imagery to reassert the folly of honoring fools and instead recommends what is best for them.

Verse 11 likens the repugnant example of a dog returning to its vomit to the fool’s attachment to his folly. The proverb compares the fool with the dog and the vomit with folly. Clearly, the dog ate something disagreeable and/or dangerous, causing the animal to expel it. To return and eat the vomit again is not only disgusting but folly in the highest degree. In a similar disgusting and absurd fashion is the fool attracted to his folly. The New Testament applies this proverb to those who, having escaped the corruption of the world, regress to it (2Pet 2:20–22).

Verse 12 compares one “who is wise in his own eyes” (i.e., someone who rejects God’s wisdom and relies wholly on his own; cf. 3:7; 26:5) with the “fool.” The former is worse off than a fool because whereas the fool has a chance of being redeemed, the arrogant know-it-all has none. Normally in Proverbs, there is no hope for a fool, but here a faint hope is offered that the fool, through harsh discipline (see v. 2), may be brought to repentance (see 8:5).

The Sluggard (26:13–16)

The word for “sluggard” occurs in all verses of this subunit, forming the last of the three collections on the sluggard (see 6:6–11; 24:30–34).

Verse 13 is similar to 22:13. See the interpretation there.

Whereas verse 13 implied that the sluggard refuses to leave his house, verse 14 states that he will not leave his bed. The comparison of the sluggard tossing on his bed with a door pivoting on its hinge suggests movement within only a limited area. The pivoting of the door, however, is intentional and useful; the pivoting sluggard, by contrast, accomplishes nothing.

Verse 15 is similar to 19:24, differing only in explaining further why the sluggard will not bring his hand to his mouth (19:24b): doing so tires him out. The absurd reason implies that, to the sluggard, the mere thought of expending effort exhausts him. It also implies the self-destructive nature of sloth. The sluggard would rather starve than expend the minimal effort required to feed himself.

Verse 16 warns that, far from being comical figures, sluggards are spiritually depraved characters who think of themselves as wiser than the wisest of people. “Seven men who can answer sensibly” refers to the wisest of counsellors who provide impeccable counsel (cf. Ezra 7:14; Esth 1:14). The sluggard thinks he is wiser than such people. He is, therefore, in the category of the arrogant know-it-all described in verse 12 for whom there is no hope of salvation.

The Meddler (26:17)

Verse 27 warns against needlessly meddling in another’s disputes by comparing the meddler with one who grabs a “passing dog by the ears.” In Solomon’s Israel, dogs were not domesticated but roamed wild in packs. To grab such a dog by the ears would result in immediate pain and regret. The fact that the dog was “passing” indicates that getting involved in the dispute was not necessary (contrast 24:11).

The Deceiver (26:18–19)

Verses 18–19 compare a person who perpetrates a deadly deception on another with a murderous lunatic unleashing death upon society. “Deceives his neighbor” indicates that the deceiver fully intended to harm his victim, but when exposed avoids accountability by claiming, “I was only joking.” Such deception, however, is no laughing matter. Its damage is as deadly as that of a madman unleashing a barrage of lethal missiles on the public. The proverb warns the disciple not to be, or be the victim of, a deceiver.

The Slanderer (26:20–22)

Verse 20 intimates that a slanderer is as destructive to a community as fire. Slanderers turn community members against each other by stirring up people’s latent fears, prejudices, and divisions. If peace is to return, then the wise must remove slanderers. The proverb likens the end of the strife caused by the slanderer’s elimination to the dying of a fire once the fuel is removed. The analogy teaches that just as surely as a fire dies when the fuel is removed, so strife dies when slanderers are removed.

Whereas verse 20 taught that where slanderers are absent strife is reduced, verse 21 presents the opposite, namely, that where quarrellers are present strife is kindled. Both proverbs teach the destructive effect of slanderers and quarrellers on community peace and suggest that their removal is vital for community shalom. Paul taught that those who aspire to church office must not be quarrelsome (1Tim 3:3), and he warned Titus to reject quarrelsome people (Titus 3:9; cf. 2Tim 2:23).

Verse 22 is a precise duplicate of 18:8. See the interpretation there.

The Hypocrite (26:23–28)

This unit of six proverbs features the hypocrite. Verse 25 reveals the purpose of the unit, namely, to warn the wise not to believe him. The unit is organised into two groups of three sayings. The first three describe the hypocrite’s character (vv. 23–25) and the last three his demise (vv. 26–28).

The Hypocrite’s Character (26:23–25)

Verse 23 uses the metaphor of a clay vessel that is overlaid with “silver dross” (i.e., the silver-colored sludge that is left after the silver is extracted) to warn the wise that beneath the hypocrite’s “smooth¹²⁰ lips” (i.e., flattering speech) lurks an “evil heart” (i.e., wicked purpose). The proverb teaches the disciple that just as a wise buyer will test the silver-colored pot to confirm that it is pure, so the wise test for genuineness when choosing friends (see comments on 12:26, on 17:17–20, and on 18:24).

Verse 24 further elaborates verse 23b by noting that those who hate the wise (see v. 25) disguise their hatred with their speech. “Harbors deceit in his heart” refers to the hypocrite’s true intention, which is to deceive and destroy the wise.

Verse 25 reveals the purpose of the unit, namely, to warn the wise not to be deceived by the false friend’s gracious (i.e., beguiling) words. “Seven” is the number that symbolizes completeness or perfection. “Seven abominations in his heart” means that the hypocrite’s inner motivation is completely evil, while his outward speech appears gracious. Moses taught the Israelites not to believe every prophet but to test them to confirm that they were genuine (Deut 13:2–6; 18:15–22). Similarly, the apostle John warned the church not to believe every spirit but to test them to confirm that they were from God (1Jn 4:1–6).

The Hypocrite’s Demise (26:26–28)

Verse 26 assures the wise that though the hypocrite conceals his hatred through deception, his “wickedness (i.e., his intention of harming the wise) will be exposed.” “Assembly” probably refers to the judicial court that assembled publicly at the city gate. To be exposed includes being punished. When and by whom the exposure of the hypocrite is effected remains unspecified. Verse 27 may suggest one answer.

Verse 27 suggests that the hypocrite’s demise is self-caused, in that his wicked schemes will return to destroy him. “Digs a pit” refers to the hypocrite’s attempt to trap the wise, while “rolls a stone,” presumably uphill to throw down on the wise, refers to the hypocrite’s attempt to kill the wise (Num 23:10–11; Esth 7:10; Dan 6:24; cf. 2Tim 4:14).

Verse 28 confirms that the hypocrite’s false speech, by which he intended to harm his victims (verset A), will rebound to destroy him (verset B).

Forms of the verb hallēl (“to boast”; “to praise” [vv. 1; 21]) form an inclusio around this unit. Verse 22 is a janus that functions both to conclude the unit and to introduce the next one. Words for “friend” (v. 6), “neighbor” (vv. 9, 10a, 14, 17 [CJB, NET]), “next-door-neighbor (šākēn qārôb; v. 10b) reveal the unit’s theme of wisdom in relationships with friends and neighbors. Two rare three-line proverbs (vv. 10, 22) separate the unit into two subunits (vv. 1–10, 11–22). An alternating thematic pattern unites the two subunits:¹²¹

A. Listen to strangers for praise (1–2)

B. Relationships to avoid: the foolish, angry, jealous (3–4)

C. Teachings about friendship (5–10)

A’. Listen to parents for instruction (11–12)

B’. Relationships to avoid: the wicked, hypocrite, shrew (13–16)

C’. Teachings about friendship (17–22)

First Subunit (27:1–10)

Listen to Strangers for Praise (27:1–2)

Verses 1–2 are linked by the verb hallēl (“boast” [v.] and “praise” [v. 2]). Together they teach the disciple not to boast before God and people. To “boast about tomorrow” means to praise oneself for achieving future success. This is arrogant since “you do not know what a day may bring.” The proverb argues from lesser to greater: if one does not know what the current day holds, how much more does one not know what the future holds? Only God controls the future (cf. 16:1, 9); therefore, to boast about future achievements is arrogant and displays a lack of humility. James alludes to this proverb to warn his readers not to be arrogant and boast about what they will accomplish in the future (Jas 4:13–17). The proverb does not prohibit planning for the future (see 11:14; 15:22; 16:3; 20:18; 21:5; 24:6, 27) but warns against trusting in self to achieve success. It is always wise to add the abbreviation D.V. (Deo Volente, “God willing”) to whatever future plans one makes. While verse 1 advises humility, verse 2 advises modesty. The synonymously parallel versets emphasise the admonition never to praise oneself but to leave it to “strangers,” since they have no ulterior motives, and so can evaluate honestly.

Relationships to Avoid (27:3–4)

Verses 3–4 are linked by similar pattern in the Hebrew¹²² and by similar theme: people with destructive behaviours who must be avoided. Verse 3 compares the physical burden of carrying stone and sand with the emotional burden of putting up with a fool’s behavior and concludes that the latter is a far worse burden than the combined burden of carrying stone and sand. Verse 4 compares the cruelty of wrath and the devastation of anger with jealousy and concludes that while the former are excruciating, jealousy is intolerably worse.

Teachings about Friendship (27:5–10)

This unit on friendship is framed by better-than proverbs (vv. 5, 10).

Verse 5 teaches that a friend who frankly and directly corrects another when that is needed is preferable to a friend who out of timidity or indifference remains silent when he should speak. The implied teaching is that the disciple will be humble enough to receive, and bold enough to give, rebuke when necessary. The command to “love your neighbor as yourself” (Lev 19:18) is preceded by the command to “rebuke your neighbor frankly” (Lev 19:17).

Verse 6 contrasts the oxymorons “wounds of a friend” with “kisses of an enemy.” Here “wounds” signify words that hurt but heal. When spoken by a friend in the right way and at the right time (see 25:12), they express love and care for the recipient. By contrast, “kisses” also express love, but when bestowed by an enemy are deceptive (see 7:13; Matt 26:49). While “wounds” and “kisses” are precise antithetic parallels, “faithful” and “profuse” are not. Therefore, the missing element in each verset must be supplied from the other. Fox suggests the following expansion: “Faithful but few are the wounds of a friend, while profuse but treacherous are the kisses of an enemy.”¹²³

Verses 7–8 form a proverb pair warning the disciple of the dangers of satisfying his sexual desires illicitly. Verse 7 teaches that one who is satisfied by wrong things ends up despising good things (i.e., “honey”), while to one who is deprived of good things (i.e., “hungry”), every wrong thing is “sweet.” The current explosion of pornography gives this proverb relevance. It is now established that men who indulge in pornography end up unable to enjoy a wholesome sexual relationship with their wives, while those who are deprived of a wholesome sexual relationship with a wife can find pornography attractive. The answer is to seek fulfillment in the right things. Verse 8 uses the metaphor of a bird permanently leaving its nest and so ending up in extreme danger to warn of the danger of a man’s abandoning his home. The reason why the man left is unstated; perhaps it was to seek sexual satisfaction elsewhere. Or it could be due to a nagging wife, as 21:9, 19, suggest. If so, the proverb is teaching disciples the necessity of considering carefully whom they marry.

Verses 9–10 are linked by the catchword “friend.” Verse 9 compares the sense of joy and calm induced by the soothing aroma of oil and perfume on the body with the sense of well-being induced by the good counsel of a friend. Verse 10 teaches that, in a time of disaster, a close family friend is to be preferred to a relative too distant to help. “Your friend . . . your father’s friend” refers to a family friend whose loyalty has lasted two generations. “Do not forsake . . . [in the day of calamity]” (unexpressed but supplied from verset B) means not to refrain from seeking help from a family friend. “Do not go to your brother’s house in the day of your calamity” appears strange, since one ought to be able to count on relatives for help in times of trouble. Verset C explains the reason. The relative may be too distant to offer timely help, in which case the next-door neighbor is better (cf. 18:24b).

Second Subunit (27:11–22)

The first two proverbs of this subunit are linked by the synonyms “wise” and “shrewd” (vv. 11, 12). They form an inclusio with the final proverb featuring their opposite, “the fool” (v. 22). Within this frame, the first four proverbs feature three negative types to be avoided (vv. 13–16), while the last five feature positive teaching on friendships (vv. 17–21).

Listen to Parents for Education in Wisdom (27:11–12)

Verse 11 admonishes the son to “be wise” and to “bring joy” (NIV) to his father (see 23:15). Verset B provides the reason: being able to point to a wise son is the father’s greatest defense when he is maligned. The father is not being selfish in wanting a wise child. Since it is unseemly for the father to boast of his own wisdom when criticized, the son’s wisdom is the indisputable proof that his father-teacher is wise.

Verse 12 features the prudent son. It is a near-verbatim duplicate of 22:3. See the interpretation there.

Three Negative Types to Avoid (27:13–16)

Verse 13 features the first negative type to avoid: the foolish surety. The proverb is a close copy of 20:16. The difference here is that the “foreigners” (nokrîm) of 20:16b is changed to “foreign woman” (nokriyyâ; i.e., the adulteress; see comments on 2:16–19), suggesting that the surety and the debtor are in the hands of a lender who does not respect covenant obligations. If the adulteress is unfaithful to her marriage partner, how much more unfaithful will she be to her business partners? The wise should have nothing to do with such fools.

Verse 14 warns of the second type to avoid: hypocritical friends. Outwardly they bless their neighbors, but the excessive volume––“loudly”–– and untimely hour––“early in the morning”––of their “blessing” indicate its insincerity. Verset B describes what happens to the hypocrite: “it will be counted as a curse to him.” Here “him” refers to the one giving the blessing. The passive construction suggests that God is the Agent who turns the blessing into a curse upon the hypocrite.

Verses 15–16 describe the third negative type to avoid: the unruly wife. Just as a “continual dripping on a rainy day” is irritating and intolerable, so is living with a contentious wife (see 19:13b; 21:9, 19; 25:24). Verse 16 describes the reason, namely, that she is impossible to restrain. Just as it is impossible to restrain a hurricane or to grasp oil with the hand, so too it is impossible to control an unruly wife. She does what she wants and will not submit to anyone, not even her husband (12:4; 31:10; cf. Eph 5:22; 1Pet 3:1–5).

Positive Teachings on Friendship (27:17–22)

Verse 17 teaches that just as an iron hammer strikes a raw piece of iron to sharpen it, so one “sharpens” (i.e., shapes the character of) one’s friend. The imagery of sharpening iron suggests pain. If the iron being sharpened were alive, it would feel the pain of the sharpening blows. Similarly, it is through the sharp words and constructive correction of a faithful friend that wise character is formed.

Verse 18 uses the agricultural analogy of looking after a fig tree to teach the social principle of looking after one’s superior. Just as the person who carefully tends a fig tree will be rewarded with its nourishing fruit, so too one who carefully safeguards his master will be “honored” (yekūbbād; i.e., rewarded materially, as in Num 22:17).

In context verse 19 teaches that just as one sees one’s true reflection in water, so one sees one’s true character––“heart”––in one’s friends’ interactions with oneself. One understands better who one is through interaction with genuine friends rather than mere self-reflection and introspection, even though these have their place (see 14:10).

Verse 20 uses the insatiable appetite of “Sheol and Abbadon” (i.e., death), which is never satisfied no matter how many people they devour (30:15b–16; cf. Eccl 2:10), as an analogy for human desires––“eyes of man”––which are similarly never satisfied. As death is constantly pulling on humans, so people’s desires constantly pull on them.¹²⁴ The proverb warns disciples not to be led by their desires but to live by wisdom’s self-control (16:32; 17:27; cf. Gal 5:22–23). Eve, Lot, Samson, Samuel, and David all fell victim to what their eyes saw (Gen 3:6; 13:10; Judg 14:1; 16:1; 1Sam 16:6; 2Sam 11:2).

Verse 21 repeats 17:3 but changes verset B from the LORD’s testing to “a man is tested” (i.e., his true character is exposed). Here the means of testing is “his praise,” an ambiguous genitive. It could mean that a person’s character is revealed by what/whom he praises (subjective genitive) or by who praises him (objective genitive). Perhaps both are intended. Wicked people reveal themselves when they praise other wicked people and slander the righteous. By contrast, the righteous praise their holy God and the good characteristics of the godly. Jesus warned his disciples to beware when all people praised them (Luke 6:26).

Verse 22 uses the imagery of grinding grain in a mortar with a pestle to emphasize the incorrigibility of fools. “With crushed grain” is added to highlight the fool’s obstinacy. Whereas the grain is successfully separated from its husk by the pounding, no amount of pounding (i.e., discipline) will remove folly from the fool (see 17:10; 26:11). Only sovereign, irresistible grace will save the fool (Titus 3:3–5). The proverb teaches the disciple not to become friends with fools (Prov 13:20).

This poem elaborates the economic principle of 12:11a by applying it to animal husbandry. The poem teaches that “riches” (v. 24a) and “a crown” (v. 24b; i.e., power, high status) are unreliable resources because they “do not last forever . . . nor endure to all generations.” Animals, however, if carefully and diligently managed (vv. 23, 25), are a renewable resource that continuously provides sustenance, not only for oneself, but also for one’s entire household, up to and including the “servant-girls” (vv. 26–27). Scholars agree that while the poem uses the example of animal husbandry, its application is not limited to that specific vocation. The mention of “crown” (v. 24b) suggests that the farmer who cares wisely for animals is an analogy for any leader who manages his realm wisely. The poem’s lesson may be summed up with the proverb, “If you look after your business, your business will look after you.”¹²⁵

On Righteousness and Wickedness (28:1–29:27)

The final unit of Collection V begins and ends with proverbs contrasting the righteous and the wicked (28:1; 29:27). Within this frame four more proverbs contrasting the righteous and the wicked (28:12, 27; 29:2, 16) function to divide the section into four subunits (28:1–12; 13–28; 29:2–15; 16–27). A warning that the incorrigible fool will be utterly destroyed stands at the center of the unit (29:1).

The catchwords “righteous” (saddîq) and “wicked” (rāšāʿ) occur in an alternating pattern in the versets of the six structuring proverbs and serve to knit the unit tightly around its theme:¹²⁶

wicked––righteous (28:1)

righteous––wicked (28:12)

wicked––righteous (28:28)

righteous––wicked (29:2)

wicked––righteous (29:16)

righteous––wicked (29:27)

The unit, consisting mostly of antithetical proverbs, trumpets the theme that righteousness builds up a community and so will prevail, while wickedness degrades it and so will be eliminated. Bruce Malchow has noted that the ruler is mentioned explicitly or implicitly throughout this unit and concludes that “chaps. 28–29 are an intricately arranged collection serving as a manual for future monarchs.”¹²⁷ If that is the case, then the final editor of the book has democratized the “manual” and placed it in the hands of all Israel’s youth, including those aspiring to high offices within the nation.

28:1–12 The key words “discern” (mēbîn/bîn; vv. 2, 5 [2x], 7, 11) and “instruction” (tôrâ; vv. 4 [2x], 7, 9) bind this subunit and highlight its lesson that discernment is achieved through submission to instruction. The subunit demonstrates the application of discernment in various situations.

Verse 1 contrasts the wicked and the righteous in terms of their inner psychology. The wicked are filled with paranoia, while the righteous are filled with courage. Although verset A comically pictures the wicked as fleeing for no reason, underlying the comedy is the tragic reality that a lifestyle dedicated to advantaging self by disadvantaging others leads inevitably to a state of constant fear. By contrast “the righteous,” who disadvantage self to advantage others, know that God approves of them and so live boldly like a “lion,” the legendary image of courage and confidence.

Verse 2 contrasts a nation in rebellion with one that is governed by a wise leader. The proverb aims to teach aspiring leaders that if they want a just community and an enduring career, they must be wise. “Land” is a metonymy for the people. When they transgress God’s moral order, presumably due to a lack of wise leadership, “many rulers” (i.e., a massive state machine) are needed to keep them in check. This results in much collateral damage to people’s rights and dignity. By contrast, where there is a leader with “discernment and knowledge,” a hendiadys meaning “a wise leader,” the nation will have stability and endurance.

Verse 3 compares the tyrant, the antithesis of the wise ruler of verse 2, to a destructive rain that annihilates the crops. The proverb’s clauses form a concentric pattern as follows:

A. A strong man who is poor (28:3aα)

B. “and” one who oppresses the poor (28:3aβ)

B’. A driving rain (28:3bα)

A’. “and” there is no bread (28:3bβ)

The pattern suggests that A is caused by B, and B’ causes A’. In that case, a strong man, who was working and producing his food (A), was made poor by the tyrannical ruler (B), who like a driving rain that strips crops (B’) stripped the hardworking man of his produce, leaving him with no bread (A’). The proverb warns the son, should he become a leader, not to become a tyrant.

Verse 4 teaches the disciple that if he abandons “instruction” (lit. “tôrâh,” but here referring to the instruction of wisdom as in 1:8; 6:23), he will end up “praising the wicked” instead of “striving against them.” God views the wicked as an abomination (see 15:8, 9, 26; cf. 3:32). To praise them, therefore, by calling them good or justifying their evil actions, is to love what God hates (cf. Isa 5:20) and risk incurring his judgment. Far from praising the wicked, “those who keep instruction” (i.e., the righteous-wise) will “strive with” (i.e., actively engage with) the wicked. The proverb confirms the connection between ethics (one’s beliefs) and morals (one’s behaviors) and calls wise disciples to enter the fray against the wicked.

Verse 5 continues the thought of verse 4 by further clarifying what differentiates “evil men” from the righteous-wise. The former, because of their rejection of wisdom, “do not discern what is right” (i.e., what comports with God’s moral order). By contrast, “those who seek the LORD” and his wisdom “understand it (i.e., God’s moral order) completely.” They, therefore, will never praise the wicked but will contend against them. The apostle Paul may have had this proverb in mind when he distinguished between the spiritual and natural person in 1 Corinthians 2:14–16.

Verse 6, like 19:1, employs the “better than” formula to teach the disciple to maintain “his integrity” even in the difficult circumstances of poverty (cf. 6:30–31). Such persons are economically worse off than the rich, but spiritually they are better off because they are blameless before God and humans (see 10:3, 29; 11:3, 20; 13:6). The rich who live perverse lifestyles are economically better off but spiritually worse off because they are an abomination to God (11:20a). The proverb nuances the retribution principle, which assumes that if one is poor, one must be wicked, and that riches are sign of divine blessing. Here the poor person who maintains integrity is commended over against the crooked rich person (cf. Job 27:5).

Verse 7 contrasts a “discerning” son with a glutton. The difference between them is that the former “keeps the instruction” (see v. 4) his parents taught him (see 3:1; 4:13), while the latter (implied) rejects it. Therefore, instead of bringing joy and honor to his parents, he shames them by choosing to identify with profligates. The wise son avoids scoundrels and brings honor to his parents (10:1a; cf. 23:15; 27:11).

In context, verse 8 describes one of the perverse behaviors of the wicked mentioned in verse 6: usury. Usurers enrich themselves by charging “interest and profit” (probably a hendiadys meaning “high interest”) on loans to the poor, something the Mosaic Law prohibited for a fellow Israelite (Exod 22:25; Deut 23:20). God, the implied Agent and Champion of the poor (22:22–23), will take away their ill-gotten profit and transfer it to those who help the poor. The proverb implicitly warns the disciple not to take advantage of the poor but to be generous to them.

Verse 9, along with verses 4a and 7b, offers a further warning of the consequences of rejecting the “instruction” of wisdom (lit. tôrâh; see vv. 4, 7): God detests their prayers and so will not answer them. In quid pro quo fashion, those who turn a deaf ear to divine wisdom will find God turning a deaf ear to their prayers (cf. 1:24–28). The proverb makes a similar point to that of 15:8.

Verse 10 warns disciples to resist the temptations of the wicked by assuring the resisters that not only will divine poetic justice ensure that the wicked fall into the very traps they set for the “upright,” but also that the “blameless” who resist temptation will be richly rewarded with good from the LORD, the implied Guarantor of the moral order.

Verse 11, like verse 6, reverses traditional attitudes towards the rich and poor. The antithetically parallel versets contrast the man who possesses riches but not wisdom with the man who possesses wisdom but not riches. For the character of the “rich man” (ʿāšîr), see comments on 10:15. In Proverbs, to be “wise in [one’s] own eyes” means to be worse than a fool (26:12; cf. 12:15). By contrast, a poor man, who lacks earthly wealth but is rich in divine wisdom, discerns the rich man’s pretensions and remains unimpressed (cf. 1Cor 2:15). The proverb implies that if wisdom enables one to understand others, how much more will it enable one to understand oneself, and so to live in truth? Wisdom, therefore, is better than riches.

Verse 12, the framing proverb, returns to contrasting the righteous and the wicked (see v. 1), this time in terms of government. When righteous people “triumph” (i.e., come to power in the community, as seen from its parallel “rise” [qûm, “to take over”] in verset B), “there is elation” (lit. “glory”) in society. But when the wicked take over, the people run for cover, resulting in the impoverishment and eventual collapse of society. The proverb is stating an observable truth (see 12:28; 19:2, 16; cf. 14:34).

Malchow notes that every proverb of this unit features a wicked type.¹²⁸ Five proverbs feature the wicked exclusively (vv. 15, 17, 21, 22, 24), while the rest contrast them with the righteous (vv. 13, 14, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25–28).

Verse 13 features the unrepentant sinner. He “conceals his transgressions,” which, judging from the antithetic parallel of “confesses and abandons,” means he does not acknowledge wrongdoings to God and does not forsake them. Such a person “will not prosper,” a litotes meaning “will be ruined.” By contrast the person who admits his wrongs to God and abandons them will obtain “mercy,” a metonymy for God’s forgiveness (see comments on 12:10). Ironically, those who reveal their sin to God will find God covering their sin (Ps 32:1; cf. Prov 10:12b), while those who conceal their sin will find that God will expose it to their shame (2Sam 12:12; cf. Num 32:23, Prov 26:26; Eccl 12:14).

Verse 14 contrasts the hard-hearted with the one who “always fears.” Here “to fear” (pāḥaḏ) is probably equivalent to “fear of the LORD,” as rendered in the ESV. In a double oxymoron, the one who fears the LORD is “blessed” (i.e., granted optimal life by God; cf. 3:13–18; 14:21), while the one who “hardens” his heart “will fall into evil” (i.e., will be ruined). To harden one’s heart means to fix it in a state of defiance to God (Exod 7:3; Ps 95:8).

Verse 15 compares the tyrannical ruler to two fearsome and lethal beasts bent on destruction: a “roaring lion” and a “charging bear.” Comparing the tyrant to two images of destruction––lion and bear, both in the process of attack–– intensifies the tyrant’s danger, brutality, and lethality. A good ruler serves and protects the people, but here he has turned into a vicious predator who unleashes the machinery of the state against the citizens.

In context, verse 16 is probably elaborating on the tyrannical ruler of verse 15 by noting that it is his lack of wisdom (lit. “understanding”) that has turned him into a “cruel oppressor.” By contrast, the leader who “hates unjust gain” (i.e., rejects gaining wealth through oppression) will “prolong days,” both his own and those of his people.

Verse 17 is connected to verses 16 and 18 by forms of the Hebrew word “oppress” (ʿāšaq). In this case, the proverb is teaching that, by a divine quid pro quo, the “cruel oppressor” of verse 16 will himself be “oppressed” (or “burdened” [ESV]; “tormented” [NIV]) by “the blood of” (i.e., the murder of) the innocent. Consequently, the murderer will “flee to the pit,” an ambiguous term which probably means that he will seek to assuage his guilt in death. The proverb’s final clause warns the wise not to help the murderer evade his fate. Jesus did not stop the blood-guilty Judas from hanging himself.

Verse 18 contrasts the person of integrity with the double-dealing crook. The former will be “delivered” (i.e., kept safe and protected) by the LORD, the implied Agent who watches over the blameless (see Ps 34:15). By contrast, crooks who kill, steal, and cheat others will “fall into the pit” (NIV), a figurative description of their annihilation by God (see Prov 12:2; cf. Ps 34:16). The proverb is similar to 10:9 (cf. 11:3; 15:25). The day when the wicked will be judged and eliminated is hidden in God’s inscrutable will. Until then, the righteous may have to suffer.

Verse 19, along with verse 20, forms a proverb pair on the theme of acquiring wealth through wicked or righteous means. Verse 19 features the wicked person who abandons honest methods of gaining wealth and instead “follows worthless pursuits” (i.e., schemes that violate God’s moral order). The proverb repeats 12:11a (see there for comment) but changes the last line to the ironic affirmation that what such illegitimate attempts reap is not plenty of wealth, but “plenty of poverty.”

Verse 20 contrasts the “faithful man” (see 20:6) with the get-rich-quick scammer. The former works diligently and honestly (see 12:22) and is rewarded by God, the implied Agent, with abundant “blessings” (i.e., prosperity, progeny, and peace). The latter, whose only desire is to acquire as much wealth, by any means, as quickly as possible, “will not go unpunished,” a litotes meaning he will most certainly be punished with poverty, sterility, and anxiety.

Verse 21, sandwiched between proverbs condemning those who get rich quickly (vv. 18–20, 22), describes one quick way to attain wealth, namely, by accepting bribes to pervert justice.¹²⁹ Verset A condemns the act with the litotes “is not good” (i.e., is wicked). Verset B warns of the slippery slope one steps onto when one accepts bribes. Such a person will eventually be persuaded to commit crimes for as little as a “piece of bread.”

Verse 22 condemns another get-rich-quick tactic: stinginess. In his fixation to get rich, the “stingy man” (lit. “person of an evil eye”; see 23:6) ignores compassion (see 28:27; cf. 3:27–28) and commits sin (see 21:6). Verset B states what will happen to him: instead of finding the riches he pursued, “poverty,” personified as a predator, pursues and overtakes him.

In context, verse 23 suggests another attempt at quick riches: flattery. To speak “smooth words” means to flatter. The flatterer’s smooth words lull people into a sense of wellbeing so that they lower their defenses and become vulnerable. The flatterer can then obtain their wealth. The flatterer is contrasted in verset A with the person who straightforwardly and honestly “rebukes” his neighbor as the Law and wisdom required (see Lev 19:17; Prov 24:26; 27:5; but see 9:7–8). Such a person will find “favor” with God and with humans (see 27:6; 15:12), while the flatterer, it is implied, will not.

Verse 24 describes the vilest of the get-rich-quick schemes, namely, robbing one’s parents. Here, the scoundrel not only seizes what is not his, but he also denies that he has done wrong––“That’s not a crime.” He may rationalize his villainy with excuses like “It’s all going to be mine anyway”; or “My parents are too old to manage their money.” But no matter the excuse, such a person is not acting like a child to his parents but as a “partner to a destroyer” (i.e., one who plunders and pillages others; see 18:9b; cf. 19:26; 30:11, 17).

Verses 25 and 26 are linked by forms of the verb “bāṭaḥ” (“to trust”) and arranged concentrically:

A. The greedy person creates strife (25a)

B. The one who trusts in the LORD prospers (25b)

B’. The one who trusts in himself is a fool (26a)

A’. The wise person escapes trouble (26b)

The concentric pattern teaches that the greedy trust in themselves, not in the LORD, and cause trouble in the community, whereas the wise trust in the LORD, not themselves, and are kept safe from trouble.

The “greedy” (lit. “wide of appetite”) cause strife because, in their drive to acquire as much as possible, they transgress proper decorum and violate people’s rights. This leads to conflict with others. By contrast, those who “trust (i.e., place their confidence) in the LORD” observe proper decorum and serve others. The LORD rewards such people with prosperity. The antithetic parallels of “stirs up strife” and “will prosper” are not precise, indicating that the conflict created by the greedy keeps them from prospering. Verse 26 labels the person who finds security in himself a “fool” (i.e., one who does not fear the LORD and despises wisdom; see 1:7; cf. Pss 14:1//53:1). The imprecise antithetic parallel of “is a fool” and “will escape” suggests that the self-confident will be condemned and eliminated (see 2:22), while the God-confident will be vindicated and established (see 2:21).

Verse 27 concludes the unit by asserting the paradoxical principle that those who give generously to the poor will never suffer want, while he who hoards his wealth (lit. “hides his eyes [from the poor]”) will receive “many curses.” It is implied that the Agent who rewards the generous is God, while the curses upon the stingy are probably made by the cries of the poor. Since the curses are deserved, God will ensure their effectiveness by striking the hoarders with poverty. Jesus told his disciples that those who give up everything to follow him will be richly rewarded both in this life and in the next (Luke 18:28–30; cf. Matt 19:27–30).

Verse 28, another framing proverb, again contrasts the righteous and the wicked in terms of government (see v. 12; cf. v. 1). Verse 28a makes the same point as verse 12b. If Malchow is right in viewing chapters 28–29 as a manual for future monarchs, then the proverb is advising rulers to ensure that they eliminate the wicked from the kingdom so the righteous can thrive (lit. “increase”).

Located at the center of the unit (28:1–29:27), this proverb warns of the extreme danger of incorrigibility. The proverb asserts that a person can resist being corrected for a time and may even appear to be getting away with his defiance. But eventually, when least expected, devastating and final judgment will fall upon the rebel. The proverb warns disciples not to be deceived by those who appear to be getting away with their recalcitrance, but to submit to correction immediately.

Following the introductory proverb of verse 2, this unit has a double frame. The outer frame concerns wisdom in rearing and features the father in verse 3a and the mother in verse 15b.¹³⁰ The inner frame concerns just rulership and features the king in both verses (4a, 14a). Within the double frame are proverbs showcasing righteous and wicked behaviors. The structure suggests that those who submit to wise training will avoid wicked behaviors, while the king must reward the righteous and judge the wicked.

Verse 2, like 28:12 and 28, again asserts the importance of righteous government for the wellbeing of society. “When the righteous (see 28:1) increase” means when the righteous are in charge, as implied by its antithetic parallel “when the wicked rule” in verset B. When the righteous reign, people “rejoice” because they experience peace and prosperity (cf. Matt 20:25–28). By contrast, when the wicked are in power, people “groan” because poverty and oppression become the norm.

Verse 3a, featuring a son who accepts wisdom, is a near-verbatim repetition of 10:1 and 15:20. Verset B contrasts the “wisdom-lover” of verset A with a “companion of prostitutes,” a euphemism for one who has sex with whores. The contrasts are not precise, suggesting that rejecting wisdom leads to foolish and immoral behavior. The result of each type of behavior is also imprecisely contrasted: “makes his father glad” versus “squanders his wealth.” The imprecision suggests that the wise son pleases his father because he avoids foolish, immoral behaviors that waste the family’s wealth.

Verse 4 contrasts just and wicked rulers and their respective effects on the nation. The versets imprecisely contrast a ruler who rules according to justice with a ruler who “exacts gifts” (lit. “man of contributions”). “Contributions” are normally what are offered in worship (Deut 12:6, 11), but here the term is used euphemistically to refer to bribes demanded by, and/or given to, a ruler. The results for the nation of each type of behavior are precisely contrasted: “causes it to stand” versus “tears it down.”

Verse 5 warns the wise to beware of those who flatter others (see comments on 28:23). Verset B states the consequence of the flatterer’s action: “spreads a net for his feet.” The ambiguous “his feet,” a synecdoche for the person, probably refers both to the victim and the flatterer. In that case, the flatterer intended his flattery to trap the victim but ends up trapping himself (cf. Job 18:8).

The trapping metaphor connects verse 6 to verse 5 and states unambiguously that the wicked are entrapped in the evil they intended for others (see 1:19; 12:13; 26:27; cf. Job 18:8–10). “Sings and rejoices” states the joyful and appropriate response of the righteous person when he escapes the snare of the wicked and observes the wicked entrapped in it. Since the one rejoicing is a righteous person, it must be assumed that he is not rejoicing over the death of the wicked per se, as that would be contrary to 24:17, but over the triumph of God’s justice (cf. Exod 15:1–20; Rev 19:1–4).

Verse 7 highlights one of the prime differences between the “righteous” and the “wicked,” namely, their respective treatment of the poor. That the righteous “know the rights of the poor” means both that they are intimately acquainted with the plight of the poor and involve themselves in seeking justice for the poor. The wicked have no such interest since they are concerned with exploiting the poor, not caring for them.

Verse 8 contrasts the “scoffers” and the “wise” in terms of their respective effects on the community. If “scoffers,” the worst kind of fools (see comments on 15:12), attain political power, they will inflame the “city,” a metonymy for its citizens, by inflaming latent resentments, prejudices, and perceived injustices. Soon the community will be roiling and ready to riot. By contrast, the wise calm society (lit. “turn away wrath”) by providing sound and just solutions to community problems, and by removing fools from positions of power (see 26:20; cf. 24:7).

Verse 9 advises both disciples and judges not to be intimidated by a fool’s blustering behavior in court. The participle nišpāṭ, from the root verb šāp̱aṭ (“to judge,” “dispute”), refers to a courtroom setting and not to any argument; hence, “goes to court” (NET, NIV, NLT). “Rages and laughs” describe the fool’s outrageous bipolar behavior, designed to intimidate and frustrate justice. “There is no quiet” means the fool will not stop. The proverb advises the disciple to ignore the fool’s outrageous behavior and to present his evidence calmly and wait for justice (cf. 26:4). It also advises judges not to be influenced by the fool’s antics.

Verse 10 contrasts the inner disposition of the “bloodthirsty” (lit. “men of bloods”; see 1:11) and the outer actions of the “upright” (i.e., those who keep God’s moral standards). The former despise the “blameless” (i.e., those with integrity; see v. 27b), but the upright “seek his life,” which, in context, must mean “protect his life”¹³¹ The imprecise parallelism requires what is missing in verset A to be supplied from verset B: the bloodthirsty hate the blameless and seek their demise, but the upright love the blameless and seek their protection. Sandwiched between proverbs relating to dealing with fools in court (v. 9) and silencing them (v. 11), the proverb suggests that one way in which the blameless protect the lives of the upright is by bringing the wicked to court.

Verse 11 picks up the topic of verse 9 and shows that the fool’s raging is “finally stilled” (i.e., “decisively silenced”; yǝšabbǝḥennâ bǝʾāḥôr¹³²) by the wise. Yǝšabbǝḥennâ is derived from the root s̆bḥ (“to still”). It is used in connection with God’s power to still the stormy sea (Pss 65:7; 89:9). That sense fits well here. Through their exceptional skill and competence, the wise put a final end to the fool’s raging and restore calm in the court and in the community.

The versets of verse 12 follow a cause-consequence pattern warning leaders that if they abandon truth, not only will they become corrupt, but so will their subordinates. Verset A features a leader who has become cynical and apathetic to truth and so is easily manipulated by lies to abuse others. Verset B teaches that the damage does not stop with the leader but percolates down to his underlings who themselves become “wicked” (i.e., abusers of the weak). Pilate was manipulated by the Jewish leadership to condemn an innocent man to death. Perhaps his cynicism about truth—“What is truth?”—made him vulnerable to manipulation (John 18:38ff).

Verse 13 is a variant of 22:2. The differences are that here the “rich man” of 22:2a is changed to “oppressor,” and “the LORD made them all” is changed to “the LORD gives light to the eyes of both.” Since in the Book of Proverbs “the rich” are spiritually depraved (see comments on 10:15), the change is a distinction without a difference. This is also the case with the different actions attributed to the LORD: “created/give light” In sum, the proverb is warning both rich and poor that the LORD is the ultimate source of their economic differences, so the poor should not be envious of the rich, and the rich should not despise the poor.

Verse 14 taken in context with verse 13 warns the king not to oppress the poor but instead to judge them “faithfully” (beʾĕmeṯ; lit. “in truth”). To judge according to truth means to judge according to the standards of God’s law and wisdom, which includes not showing favoritism to the poor (see 24:23; cf. Exod 23:3; Lev 19:15; Deut 1:17). A king who models God in dispensing justice will be honored and rewarded with an enduring dynasty.

Verse 15 concludes the unit by returning to the topic of rearing, this time featuring the mother (see v. 3a). “The rod and reproof” may be a hendiadys meaning “corrective punishment,” or it may refer to training consisting of verbal reprimand and physical discipline. Verset A asserts that this twin training method instills wisdom into a youth (implied). Verset B asserts that “a child left to himself” (i.e., not disciplined) will bring “shame” on his mother because he will become a fool (see 3:35; cf. 27:11). Unlike the rebellious son in 5:12, this proverb implies that the child is trainable, and it warns parents not to neglect their duty to train him.

Proverbs contrasting the righteous and the wicked (vv. 16, 27) frame the final unit of Collection V (25:1–29:27). Within the frame, ten proverbs expound the need for discipline and warn of the danger that fools pose to the community. Two proverbs calling for trust in the LORD conclude the unit (vv. 25–26).

Verse 16 makes a similar point as 28:28 and 29:2. The proverb affirms that the “wicked” will “increase” (i.e., be in control; see 29:2) for a time. “Transgression increases” refers to the many unjust, tyrannical policies the wicked will enact to control and exploit the citizens. Verset B encourages the righteous to remain steadfast during the difficult time, as they will live to see the wicked overthrown. The proverb contradicts the false doctrine “If you can’t beat ‘em, join ‘em.”

Verse 17, a rearing proverb, opens the unit (see 28:7; 29:3). The proverb assumes that the disciple is a parent and admonishes him to “discipline” (see comments on 19:18) his son. The admonition is supported by two reasons: “he will give you rest,” which is escalated in verst B to “he will give delight to your heart.” The former refers to freedom from worry (cf. v. 15) and the latter means that the parents will experience joy and satisfaction, including the assurance that the child will look after them in their old age.

Verse 18 highlights the importance of wisdom to the community. The meaning of “vision” (ḥāzôn, the noun form of the verb ḥāzâ) is disputed. The ESV and NET gloss it “prophetic vision” since the word is often associated with prophetic visions (e.g., Isa 1:1; Ezek 7:13; Hos 12:10; 1Sam 3:1). In 24:32, however, the verb ḥāzâ is used to describe the sage receiving an insight into wisdom. That meaning fits this context. Thus, verset A warns that where the sage’s inspired wisdom (i.e. ḥāzôn) is absent, the nation descends into anarchy and is cursed (gapped). This meaning is similar to 11:14a. By contrast, verset B asserts that a person who observes the sage’s “instruction” (lit. “torah”; see 1:8; 6:23; 28:4) will be pronounced “blessed” (see 3:13), because instruction leads to doing righteousness, justice, and equity (1:3).

Verse 19 picks up the theme of discipline from verse 17 and applies it to foolish servants. A wise household requires all members to be wise, including servants. The proverb recognizes that human depravity is so pervasive that mere verbal instruction is insufficient. One may know what is right but still refuse to do it, in which case physical discipline is also required (cf. 22:6; 26:3). Some would balk at the application of pain to train a servant. But since the same is required for a son, its application to a servant is tantamount to treating the servant like a son. A wise servant could, in theory, replace a foolish son (17:2; cf. Gen 15:2).

Verse 20 features the hasty speaker (cf. 18:3) who speaks without considering all the facts. His rash speech has the potential to cause great damage to the community. Verset B repeats 26:12b verbatim. See there for the meaning of the comparison.

Verse 21 uses the example of a servant to assert that training in wisdom should begin at the time of youth when they are most trainable (cf. 22:6). “Pampers his servant from childhood” refers to allowing the servant to do as he wishes and live as he wants during his formative years, when discipline is most needed and effective. Unsurprisingly, the spoiled servant will grow up to be “insolent” (mānôn; so NIV). Mānôn occurs only here, and so its meaning must be inferred from the overall negative context. Indulging the young, whether one’s servants or children, is not a sign of love, but of hate (see comments on 13:24).

Verse 22 warns of the damage caused by the angry person. “Man of wrath” refers to one who is in a constant state of rage. Hotheads cause conflicts by picking fights over the smallest issue and refusing to be placated (see comments on 15:18 and on 28:25). “Causes much transgression” refers to the numerous sins committed by the hothead. The proverb implicitly contains three warnings: not to be a hothead; not to associate with him; and if one is a leader, to get rid of him (see 22:10).

Verse 23 contrasts the effects that pride and humility have upon their subjects. Pride is the attitude that lifts one up above God and others. By contrast the lowly recognize their dependance on God and their need to serve others. In a macabre twist, personified pride will bring its subjects “low” by causing them to suffer humiliation, defeat, and death (cf. 16:18, 19; 25:6–7). The humble, on the contrary, will “gain honor” (i.e., be exalted by God and before humans). In his incarnation the Second Person of the Trinity humbled himself and died for others; now he is exalted, and every knee will bow before him (Phil 2:5–11).

Verse 24 highlights the folly of conspiring with thieves to rob others and share the loot. Such a person hoped to enrich his life, but instead impoverishes it even more (cf. 1:10–19). Verset B explains how: by bringing down God’s “curse” (ʾālâ) upon himself. This refers to Leviticus 5:1, which stipulated that if a crime could not be solved, then a public “curse” could be pronounced that required anyone with information to testify. If a witness refused, then the curse would fall on him. As with all curses, God was understood to be the Agent who effected the curse (cf. Zech 5:3–4).

Verse 25 warns disciples not to fear human repercussions when doing right, but to trust God who will keep them safe. The proverb may offer an explanation as to why the thief of verse 24 refused to testify: he feared retaliation from his partners. “Fear of man” refers to any situation where one recoils from doing what is right due to anxiety over what others may think, say, or do. Such behavior, however, far from keeping one safe, entraps one in compromise and a guilty conscience. By contrast, doing right, and trusting God for the outcome, brings divine protection.

Verse 26 contrasts what people often do wrongly with what they should do rightly. “Many seek the face of a ruler” refers to the masses who seek an audience with a ruler (cf. 1Kgs 10:24) to lobby him to grant them favors. Such lobbying often involves dubious practices. In contrast to the many is the single “man” who does not elevate leaders to the position of God, nor confuse their justice with the ultimate justice that only God can grant (Prov 26:1). The proverb is not prohibiting seeking justice from leaders but warns that leaders are only mediators of justice; the LORD is the source (cf. 19:6).

Verse 27 concludes the unit by returning to contrast the righteous and the wicked (v. 16), this time contrasting their extreme antipathy for each other’s ways. The proverb adds nuance to 3:4 by teaching the disciple that while choosing to follow wisdom will earn him the favor of God and (some) men, it will also earn him the disdain of the wicked (see v. 10). The proverb confirms that such antipathy is normal, even necessary, lest the righteous and the wicked unite. According to Genesis 3:15, it is God who has placed enmity for each other in the hearts of the godly and the wicked (cf. John 3:20–21; 7:7).

The penultimate collection of the Book of Proverbs can be divided into three subunits based on theme and poetics:¹³³

I. Introduction: How Agur Attained Wisdom (1–9)

II. Body: Agur’s Seven Numerical Sayings¹³⁴ (10–31)

III. Conclusion: Agur’s Wise Advice to Disciples (32–33)

This subunit consists of Agur’s introduction (1a), Agur’s journey to wisdom expressed in five confessions (1b–6), and Agur’s wise prayer (7–9).

Introduction (30:1a)¹³⁵

The introduction lists the genre, the author, and the addressee. “words” (or “sayings” [NIV]), in distinction to the short, pithy “proverbs,” designates one of the genres of wisdom (see 1:6). “Agur son of Jakeh” names a real, not a pseudonymous, author. Neither Agur nor his father are mentioned in the rest of the Bible. Agur is probably a non-Israelite sage and high court official who, like Job and King Lemuel, knew and worshipped the God of Israel. “The oracle . . . the inspired utterance” (hammaśśā . . . nǝʾūm [NIV]) affirms that Agur’s sayings are inspired. “Ithiel” (NASB, NIV, KJV) probably refers to Agur’s son, himself a budding court official (see vv. 32–33), to whom the work is addressed. From a canonical perspective, Ithiel represents all God’s people who seek his wisdom.

Agur’s Five Confessions (30:1b–6)

“I am weary O God” expresses Agur’s pessimism about finding divine wisdom through human effort (vv. 2–4). “But I can prevail” states his optimism that wisdom is attainable through divine revelation (vv. 5–6). In five confessions, Agur outlines how he overcame human limitation to achieve wisdom.

Confession 1 (30:2–3)

“I am too stupid . . . I have not the understanding of a man” expresses Agur’s first confession that he is unable to attain divine wisdom via unaided human reason. Yet, paradoxically, this acknowledgement is itself wisdom. This explains his assertion in verse 3: “I have not learned wisdom, nor have I knowledge of the Holy One.” Here, Agur recognizes that wisdom is unattainable without a personal relationship with God. Divine wisdom is not a matter of what you know; it is a matter of Whom you know.

Confession 2 (30:4a)

Next, Agur confesses the dilemma that in order to be truly wise one requires omniscience. Only one who knows comprehensively can know certainly. Agur’s four “Who?” questions perform two functions. First, taken as rhetorical questions, they all require the answer “no one.” That is, no mortal has the height, depth, length, and breadth of knowledge upon which wisdom rests. Second, taken as interrogatives, they imply that only God, the Creator and Sustainer of the cosmos, has the omniscience to dispense wisdom.

Confession 3 (30:4bα)

Agur’s third confession asks the first of two “What?” questions. The first, “What is his name?” expects the answer YHWH, the Omniscient One implied in the “Who?” questions of verse 4a. Only YHWH possesses comprehensive knowledge and so alone possesses wisdom (cf. Job 28:23–28). The dilemma, however, is that an unbridgeable gulf separates YHWH, the possessor of wisdom, from humanity who need it.

Confession 4 (30:4bβ)

Agur’s second “What?” question, “What is his son’s name?” solves the dilemma by implying that God will teach his wisdom to his “son” (see comments on 4:3–4). Historically, this would have been Ithiel; spiritually, it is all God’s people who desire to become righteous-wise and diligently seek it from God (cf. 2:1–4). Jesus, the literal Son of God, fulfilled the role of Agur’s “son” supremely (Luke 2:40, 52) and subsequently became “wisdom” for God’s people (Matt 12:42; par. Luke 11:31; cf. 1Cor 1:24, 30; Col 2:3).

Confession 5 (30:5–6)

In the fifth confession, Agur reveals that the inaccessible God has made his wisdom known in the inspired Scriptures. In verse 5, Agur alludes to 2 Samuel 22:31 (= Ps 18:30) to affirm the moral excellence of God’s Word. In verse 6 he alludes to Deuteronomy 4:2 and 12:32—“Do not add to his words”—the so-called canonical formula, to restrict God’s Word to the canon, which included, by implication, his own inspired sayings. Today, the canon includes the New Testament (see Rev 22:18–19). “Lest he rebuke you and you be found a liar” warns disciples not to add their humanistic wisdom to God’s holy wisdom or to syncretize God’s wisdom with human wisdom (cf. 1Cor 1:18–21).

Agur’s Prayer (30:7–9)

Agur’s prayer shows that his quest was successful, and he did attain wisdom. His prayer petitions God to grant him the two quintessential characteristics of a godly sage: a true heart and a moderate lifestyle. “Before I die” expresses both the urgency and the sincerity of his request. These are the only things that he wants to experience in the remainder of his life. Verse 8b states his desire for moderation negatively: lit. “Poverty or riches do not give me.” And verse 8c states it positively: “Provide me my quota of food.” The latter request was used by Jesus in the (so-called) Lord’s Prayer: “Give us this day our daily bread” (Matt 6:11//Luke 11:3). Verse 9 explains the reasons why Agur desires a moderate lifestyle, namely, to ensure that he remains faithful and dependent on God. Having too much may cause him to “deny” God (lit. “act deceptively”; cf. Hos 9:2; Deut 8:12–14), while not having enough may lead him to steal and dishonor God’s name. Stealing will reveal Agur to be a hypocrite who did not trust God to meet his needs (cf. 5:30–31).

Structurally, the seven¹³⁶ numerical sayings are arranged into two groups of three and four sayings. Each group begins with an introductory saying (vv. 10, 17). The first verse of all the numerical sayings in the second group begin with an initial numerical verse (vv. 18, 21, 24, 29).¹³⁷ The overall structure of the two groups of three and four sayings matches the numerical pattern “Three . . . Four” in the initial verses of 18, 21, 29:

First Group: Renouncing Greed (10–16)

Introductory saying (10)

Saying 1 (11–14)

Saying 2 (15a)

Saying 3 (15b–16)

Second Group: Living within Boundaries (17–31)

Introductory saying (17)

Saying 4 (18–20)

Saying 5 (21–23)

Saying 6 (24–28)

Saying 7 (29–31)

Thematically, the sayings promote the wisdom of living within divinely established boundaries. The introductory sayings of both groups denounce abusing the weak: verse 10 denounces abusing a servant, and verse 17 abusing elderly parents. In both cases the offenders are threatened with death. The first group of sayings renounce greed (vv. 11–16), and the second group promotes living within limits (vv. 18–31).

First Group (30:10–16)

Introductory Saying: Do not Abuse a Servant (30:10)

“Do not slander a servant to his master” means to tell lies about a servant so that his master punishes him. Servants, especially if they were slaves, were extremely vulnerable, as they possessed only diminished rights and little to no means to defend themselves against lies (cf. Gen 39:11–20). In that case, the falsely accused slave’s only recourse would be to “curse” the liar. “And you be held guilty” assumes that the curse is justified, resulting in God’s punishing the slanderer (26:2).

Saying 1: The Greedy Generation (30:11–14)

The first saying describes an evil generation that curses parents and destroys the poor in order to enrich itself. The four verses of the saying are held together by the anaphora dôr (lit. “generation”; rendered “those” in the ESV). Each verse uses a negative characteristic to describe the same generation or type. The negative characterizations begin with how people mistreat their parents in the home and end with how they destroy the poor in the community. The progression from home to community suggests that the evil which begins in the home will spread to society. This may also be why the sanctity of the home was deemed essential in ancient thought, since what happened in the home eventually affected society. Judges 19–21 depicts how a domestic dispute between a Levite and his wife burgeoned to the point of the nation destroying itself in civil war.

Verse 11, “curse . . . do not bless,” is a merism referring to children treating their parents with utter contempt instead of honoring them as the earthly source of their life. The Law required honor for parents (Exod 20:12; Deut 5:16) and death for children who have cursed them (Exod 22:17; Deut 27:16). The motive for the cursing is possibly to render the parents invalid or dead so as to obtain their wealth. What will happen to such children is revealed in verse 17.

Verse 12 describes how the evil generation views itself (verset A) and then how they really are (verset B). They think they are pure, when in fact they are covered in “excrement” (ṣōʾâ; cf. Isa 36:12). The stark metaphor refers to their moral impurity.

Verse 13 escalates the generation’s evil character from self-delusion to pride. The doubling of the negative imagery—“How lofty are their eyes, how high their eyelids lift!”—means they are not just proud, but super proud.

Verse 14 describes how they treat the poor. If they are evil enough to curse their own parents, how much more will they abuse the poor? “Whose teeth are swords, whose fangs are knives” probably refers to their deadly speech, by which they shred the poor and wipe them off the earth. The imagery refers to the many forms of false speech they employ to destroy the poor and take what little the poor have for themselves (e.g., v. 10; cf. 14:5b; 18:23; 22:22).

Saying 2: The Insatiable Parasite (30:15a)

This saying uses the parasitic horse-leech as an example of people who prey on the resources of the community. “Two daughters” refers to the two suckers located at each end of the leech’s body. Based on the principle of nomen est omen, “Give, Give” refers both to their names and to their insatiable character. The saying was probably used to describe someone who, instead of contributing to society, sponged on its resources.

Saying 3: Four More Insatiables (30:15b–16)

This is the first numerical saying: “Three things . . . four . . .”  In numerical sayings, the focus is placed on the higher number, which also states what all the elements have in common. Here the common feature of all four examples is their insatiability—“four never say ‘enough’.” The four Insatiables are arranged concentrically, with elements symbolizing death framing elements symbolizing life:

A. Death (Sheol)

B. Life (Barren womb)

B’. Life (Land)

A’. Death (Fire)

“Sheol” (i.e., the grave) and “fire” seek to take life. The “barren womb” and the “land” seek to produce life, the former by bearing children and the latter by bearing crops. Yet, all are frustrated in their respective attempts. The saying may be teaching that “[A]s the created order is ever engaged in an unending battle between life and death, similarly in the moral order, the wise ever strive against evil without ever attaining utopia.”¹³⁸

Second Group: Living within Boundaries (30:17–31)

Introductory Saying (30:17)

Verse 17 follows a cause-consequence pattern to show what will happen to children who disdain their parents. The “eye” is the organ that reveals character and, by synecdoche, represents the person. A “mocking . . . scorning” eye is a child who despises his “gray-haired¹³⁹ (i.e., old and wise; cf. 16:31; 20:29) parents. Naturally, such a child would also reject his parent’s wisdom. The consequence for the wicked child is a humiliating and gruesome death in the barren wilderness, with the wild birds feeding on his carcass.

Saying 4: Four Amazing Actions and One Awful Action (30:18–20)

This saying highlights the paradox of freedom within limits. Agur chooses four examples that illustrate effortless, traceless movements that amaze and puzzle him (lōʾ yǝḏaʿtîm) because all of them, at first, appear to be functioning outside of limitations. The eagle soars in the sky without falling; the snake slithers on the rock without slipping; the ship cruises on the sea without sinking; and a man and a woman have sex with no mention of marriage. All of them display actions that appear to defy limitations.

Agur’s saying is probably a riddle (see 1:6) challenging the reader to look closely at his examples, to find out if indeed their actions are outside divinely established boundaries.

On closer examination, the disciple discovers that while the four display wondrous freedom, yet they move strictly within God-ordained realms. The bird was made to soar in the sky (Gen 1:20); the snake to creep on the rocky ground (Gen 1:24–25); and the ship is limited to cruising on the sea (Ps 104:24–26). Agur probably chose a ship, instead of a fish, in order to transition to the human realm.

This leads to the fourth example, “the way (dereḵ) of a man (geḇer) with (or, “in”) a young woman (bǝʿalmâ).” Since this is the higher number (“four”), it is the primary element that he intends the reader to focus on. Here Agur refers to the mystery, beauty, and pleasure of heterosexual lovemaking.¹⁴⁰ He does not, however, clarify whether the couple is married. He does not say, for example, “the way of a man with his wife.” The ambiguity could lead to the misunderstanding that sexual intercourse too functions without limitations, except, perhaps, that the participants are limited to a heterosexual pair.

We believe that Agur, or the final editor, provided a clue to properly read the final wonder by adding verse 20 on the “way of an adulteress.” At first this fifth “way” seems out of place, but in context the point becomes clear. The adulteress too enjoys the pleasure of sexual intercourse but does so outside the boundaries of marriage. She knows that she is in violation of such boundaries because she takes steps to conceal her act: “eating and wiping her mouth” is imagery for having sex and getting rid of the evidence. Also, she says, “I have done no wrong,” which one often says after one has done wrong. Thus, verse 20, coming immediately after verses 18–19, demonstrates that sexual intercourse can be enjoyed illicitly, outside the bonds of marriage, but implies that it should not. The “way of a man in a young woman,” therefore, is best understood as a statement on the freedom and joy of sex within the limits of heterosexual, monogamous marriage (cf. Gen 2:21–25).

Saying 5: Things That Upend the Social Order (30:21–23)

Mention of the adulteress, who threatens the sanctity of marriage (v. 20), leads to this saying that lists four more threats to order. “Earth trembles . . . under four it cannot bear up” refers to society’s descending into chaos when any one of the four listed changes takes place. The four changes relate to people moving to a higher status without the requisite change in wise character. “A slave when he becomes king” implies the slave has attained leadership illegitimately, not by virtue of wisdom and righteousness. Such a person will soon become a tyrant and/or will ruin the kingdom due to his incompetence. A “fool” should suffer want for his folly. Filling him with food, which is a reward of wisdom (9:5), will teach him only that his folly is wisdom and make him insufferable. An “unloved woman” is one who is rejected owing to her unwise character. “Gets married” means she obtains a household to rule over. That household will soon be ruined by her foolish habits (14:1). A home can also be threatened by a maidservant who displaces her mistress, probably by seducing the husband (cf. Gen 16:4). Of the four examples, only two clearly relate to changes in the home, yet they all threaten to undermine society. This shows again that the state of the home and the state of society are connected.

Saying 6: Four Weak but Wise Creatures (30:24–28)

This saying showcases four small creatures who lack brawn and live in extremely hostile environments, and yet survive and thrive by virtue of wisdom. The four creatures are “small” (i.e., vulnerable) but are “extremely wise,” meaning God has endowed them with an abundance of wisdom that they embody and exemplify.

“Ants are a people” personifies the ant as a representative of all humans who are “not strong,” a litotes meaning physically weak. Yet they thrive because “they provide their food in the summer,” an image signifying the ant’s collection of food when it is plenteous and saving some of it for the winter months. The lesson here is that the wise survive by saving for the future.

Rock badgers (i.e., the hyrax) are “not mighty” (i.e., numerous), but they compensate by dwelling in rocky caves, which makes it difficult for predators to decimate them. Here the lesson for the wise is to acknowledge their own vulnerability and to seek protection outside of themselves, namely, in God the Rock (Deut 32:15; 1Sam 2:2; 2Sam 23:3; Ps 18:31).

Locusts are vulnerable because they “have no king” (i.e., leader) to lead and defend them. Yet they have the wisdom to “march in rank,” a military imagery for their going forth in unison (cf. Joel 2:1–11). The lesson is that the wise too must go forth to fight God’s battles in unison with others.

The lizard (prob. the gecko) is the fourth creature and so the one on which the sage intends to focus. It is vulnerable because “you can take it in your hands” (i.e., it is too weak to defend itself). “Yet it is in kings’ palaces” is not a compensating wisdom but exemplifies the reward of wisdom. The lesson is that with wisdom, even the physically weak can end up serving in the highest offices (cf. 22:29).

Saying 7: Four Powerful and Wise Rulers (30:29–31)

Saying seven showcases four powerful creatures that, having achieved wisdom, strut in a stately, confident manner in their respective domains. The saying’s placement immediately after the saying featuring four vulnerable but wise creatures suggests that possessing divine wisdom not only enables one to survive in hostile environments but also to dominate in them. Each of the creatures in this saying is “majestic of stride,” an image signifying that it is the lord of its sphere. The list of creatures—lion, rooster, goat—climaxes with the fourth, the invincible “king with his army” (ʾalqûm ʿimmô; cf. Rev 19:11–16).

Agur concluded his wise advice by warning Ithiel, a court official, that self-exaltation will inevitably lead to personal harm and communal strife. “If you have been foolish” is concretized specifically as “exalting yourself” to a position not God-given or wisdom-earned, and so achieved by immoral means, and hence referred to as “devising evil.” “Put your hand on your mouth” is literally “hand to mouth!” (i.e., shut up immediately). Verse 33 states the reasons for eschewing self-exaltation: it inevitably leads to personal harm and communal strife. Just as “pressing milk” inevitably “produces curds” and “pressing the nose” inevitably produces blood, so too rebellion inevitably stirs up people’s anger and leads to communal strife.

The final collection of the book contains a superscription (v. 1) followed by two distinct poems, the first on the noble king (vv. 2–9), and the second an acrostic on the valiant wife (vv. 10–31).

“The words (better, “sayings”) of King Lemuel” identifies the genre (see comments on 1:6) and author of both poems. Though King Lemuel is a foreign monarch not mentioned in the rest of the Bible, he, like Agur, trusted in Israel’s God. “An oracle” (maśśāʾ) specifies the sayings as “inspired utterances” (see 30:1; so NIV). “His mother taught him” clarifies that King Lemuel is passing on the wisdom that he received from his mother. For all practical purposes, therefore, the implied author of chapter 31 is King Lemuel’s mother. This renders chapter 31 unique amongst the wisdom literature of the ANE, where no other wise sayings are attributed to a woman.

After an admonition to listen (v. 2), King Lemuel’s mother taught her son that a noble king displays two fundamental characteristics: restraint over his vices (vv. 3–7) and care of the poor (vv. 8–9).

Call to Listen (31:2)

The threefold “Listen . . . listen . . . listen”¹⁴¹ indicates what is about to be said is urgent, important, and requires Lemuel’s complete attention. “Son of my womb . . . son of my vows” addresses Lemuel as a beloved son, born as a result of a vow. She probably vowed that if God granted her a son, she would educate him in the way of wisdom (cf. 1Sam 1:11).

Call to Restrain Vices (31:3–7)

King Lemuel’s mother commands him to avoid two dangers that ruin kings: unrestrained sexual passion and unrestrained indulgence in intoxicants.

Verse 3: “Your strength . . . your ways [ḏǝrāḵêḵā]” are metonymies for sexual vigor.¹⁴² “Women” in verset A is qualified as “those who destroy kings” in verset B. Becoming sexually entangled with women will drain his energy, distract him from his official duties, and cost him materially, while providing no compensating benefits (cf. 1Kgs 11:1–8).

Verses 4–5 form a proverb pair admonishing the king to shun intoxicants, since they will inhibit his ability to maintain law and order and provide justice to the poor. Although the admonition appears to commend total abstinence from all alcoholic beverages, most commentators believe it is a warning against overindulgence.

Verses 6–7 have been variously interpreted by scholars. Probably it was a common cynical saying of the day on how to treat the poor and the suffering. If so, its placement here is sarcastic. It is warning King Lemuel of precisely what not to do about the poor. Giving them intoxicants to dull their senses instead of addressing the real causes of their misery is not the behavior of a noble king.

Instead of giving the poor unhelpful intoxicants, verses 8–9 command Lemuel to give them justice. “Open your mouth” is imagery for speaking up (so NIV, NLT). “The mute” is a metonymy for the marginalized who, owing to lack of power, have no voice in society and in the courts. In that case, the king must take up their cause and be their voice. To “judge righteously” means to give just and fair judicial verdicts that are in accordance with the law and are not biased toward any group, whether the rich or the poor. “Defend the rights of” refers to ensuring that the “poor and needy” are treated fairly and not abused by the rich and powerful.

The final poem of the book is a paean for the valiant wife (ʾēšeṯ-ḥayil). It is an acrostic in which the first letter of each of its twenty-two verses follows the Hebrew alphabet in order. Poets used the acrostic pattern for two reasons: to give a sense of completeness to their subject (i.e., everything about it from A to Z) and as an aid in memorization and recall. In addition to the acrostic pattern, the poem also follows a logical structure:¹⁴³

I. Introduction: Valiant Wife’s Value (10–12)

Generally (10)

Specifically (11–12)

II. Body: Valiant Wife’s Actions (13–27)

Her business achievements (13–18)

Janus (19)

Her social achievements (20–27)

III. Conclusion: Valiant Wife’s Praise (28–31)

Praise from family (28–29)

Praise from all (30–31)

The poem begins with her husband’s trusting in her (v. 11), progresses to her empowering him to lead (v. 23), and concludes with his praise of her (v. 28).

Al Wolters classified the poem’s genre as “heroic hymn.”¹⁴⁴ Heroic hymns praised a hero’s mighty deeds on the battlefield. In this poem, however, the hero is not a warrior but a wife, and her exploits are not on the battlefield but in the domestic sphere.

Some readers wonder whether the valiant wife is a real woman or represents a personification of Wisdom (cf. 1:20–33; 8:1–36; 9:1–6). For the following reasons, we believe the poem celebrates a real woman. First, the word “woman” (ʾiššâ [ʾēšeṯ is the construct form of ʾiššâ]) in Proverbs always refers to a real woman (12:4; 14:1; 18:22; 31:3). Second, ʾēšeṯ-ḥayil is used once more in the Old Testament to describe Ruth, a real woman (Ruth 3:11). Third, as Fox notes, while the valiant wife’s accomplishments seem extraordinary, “there are a great many women whose activities equal the ones described in Prov 30:10–31 [sic].”¹⁴⁵

I. Introduction: Valiant Wife’s Value (31:10–12)

Verse 10 describes, in general terms, the valiant wife’s rarity and value. “Who can find?” such a wife expresses her rarity. The question is rhetorical, suggesting the answer, “almost no one,” since clearly someone has found and married her. Her value is described as “far beyond jewels,” suggesting that like Wisdom (see 3:14), she is obtained not by money, but by virtue. It is a man who embodies all the virtues of Proverbs 1:1–31:9 that deserves such a wife.

Verses 11–12 describe the valiant wife’s value specifically to her husband. “The heart of her husband trusts (bāṭaḥ) in her” means he has total confidence in her. This use of bāṭaḥ is unique in the Bible, since Scripture condemns trust in anyone or anything apart from God (cf. 2Kgs 18:21; Ps 118:8–9; Isa 36:5; Jer 5:17; 17:5–8; 18;10; 48:7; Ezek 33:13; Mic 7:5).¹⁴⁶ Empowered by her husband’s trust, the wife unleashes her considerable capabilities so that her husband has “no lack of spoil [šālāl],” a litotes meaning he has ample provisions. Šālāl refers to spoil obtained in war. In 1:13 it was used as a negative metaphor to describe the plunder obtained by criminals. Here it is used positively to refer to the wife’s contribution to the family income. The use of a military metaphor suggests that the wife’s domestic accomplishments are similar to those of a warrior in battle. “She does him good, not harm” generalizes the valiant wife’s benefit to her husband. The good she does will be explicated in the body of the poem.

II. Body: Valiant Wife’s Actions (31:13–27)

The poem’s body can be subdivided into two sections. Verses 13–18 describe her contributions specifically to the family income; verses 20–27 describe her contributions both to the family and wider society. Verse 19 connects both halves.

A. Her Economic Achievements (31:13–18)

Verse 13 describes her work ethic. The verb “seeks” (dārǝšâ) suggests that she diligently and carefully selects the things she needs for her business. “Wool and flax” are the raw materials of animal and plant sources. Through hard work, she transforms these into thread (see v. 19) and then weaves them together to make garments, her end product. The valiant wife creates her products from scratch. The work is hard, but she “works with willing hands” (i.e., with a positive attitude and inner drive). Although she has maidservants to help her (see v. 14), this verse confirms that she works hard herself.

Verse 14 affirms that her home-based business was successful. The simile comparing her with “merchant ships” signifies that her business has become successful to the point that she can trade on an international scale. Her products are carried far and wide, and she in turn can purchase foods from faraway places. Her family is not limited to consuming only locally produced foods.

Verse 15 allusively compares the valiant wife with a lioness that “rises while it is yet night” to hunt for “food” (ṭerep̱, lit. “prey”). By means of the predator image, the author adds strength and courage to the valiant wife’s other positive attributes. Her success is once again highlighted by the fact that she provides enough food for her entire household, including the maidservants.

Verse 16 describes how the valiant wife uses the profits from her textile industry—“out of her earnings (NIV)”—to purchase an additional business. She “considers” (i.e., formulates a plan of action) and buys a field. She then converts the raw field into a vineyard, one of the most prized industries of the day, and also one that required much capital and effort (see 24:30–34).

Verse 17 describes the valiant wife’s physical strength, which provides her with the stamina to be able to perform the gruelling physical labor required for her two industries. While she receives help from her servants, the valiant wife “dresses herself with strength” and “makes her arms strong.” Both images signify physical preparedness for manual labor. In sum, she has a strong body that enables her to work hard.

Verse 18 affirms that while the valiant wife works hard, she does not merely labor mindlessly. She can also enjoy her success, which, according to Ecclesiastes 5:18–20, is a gift of God (cf. Isa 53:11; Heb 12:2). The idiom “her lamp does not go out at night” probably does not mean that she stays up working long into the night, but that she has generated enough income for her to have no need of putting out her lamps at bedtime so as to conserve oil.

B. Janus (31:19)

Verse 19 concludes the first section detailing the wife’s textile industry. It is also concentrically bound to verse 20. “Puts her hands (yāḏêhā) to the distaff . . . palms (ḵappêhā) hold the spindle” completes the thought begun in verse 13, that after gathering wool and flax, the valiant wife spins them into thread. The verse also connects to the next section (vv. 20–27) by its concentric structure with verse 20:¹⁴⁷

A. Puts her hands (yāḏêhā) to the distaff (19a)

B. Her palms (ḵappêhā) hold the spindle (19b)

B’. Her palms (kappāh) open to the poor (20a)

A’. Her hands (yāḏêhā) reach out to the needy (20b)

The connection of verse 19 with verse 20 suggests that the valiant wife works hard not only to provide for her own household but also to support the poor. She is both hardworking and generous. The Apostle Paul taught the Ephesian Christians, some of whom were former thieves, to work with their hands so that they would also have something to share with the needy (Eph 4:28; cf. Acts 20:33–35).

C. Her Social Achievements (31:20–27)

The second section of the poem’s body focuses on the valiant wife’s contributions to her household and the wider community. It is structured chiastically as follows:¹⁴⁸

A. Wife cares for the poor (20)

B. Wife has no fear of snow (21a)

C. Wife’s household clothed in scarlet (21b)

D. Wife makes two types of textile products for herself (22)

X. Wife’s husband respected in government (23)

D’. Wife makes two types of textile products for merchants (24)

C’. Wife clothed with strength and dignity (25a)

B’. Wife has no fear of future (25b)

A’. Wife cares for her own household (26–27)

A/A’ reference body parts to describe the valiant wife’s generosity to the poor and her vigilance over her own household.

B/B’ portray the valiant wife’s confidence as she faces the future: “not afraid,” “laughs.”

C/C’ explain why she is confident: by her physical strength she has provided her household with clothing; by her spiritual strength she has clothed herself with “strength and dignity” (cf. 14:26).

D/D’ showcases the wife’s industry by noting the textile products she creates: two for herself and two for the merchants.

X, the pivot, states the central message of the whole poem: the valiant wife’s prodigious activities empower her husband to lead the community. Or, to state it in another way, this is the kind of woman a man should marry if he is to be a successful leader.¹⁴⁹

Verse 20. See above on verse 19.

Verse 21 notes that the valiant wife is unafraid of “snow”—a potentially life-threatening season of the year—because all her household, which would include her servants, are clothed in appropriate garments. The LXX renders the MT’s šānîm (“scarlet”) to “two-ply,” suggesting the wife provides two layers of clothing for her household. However, the emendation is unnecessary, as the color “scarlet” is a metonymy for the expensive and high-quality wool garments. Linen was not easily dyed.

Significantly, verse 22 points out that even while the valiant wife works tirelessly to provide for her household and the poor, she does not neglect herself. She makes herself bed coverings so that her bed is soft and elegant, and she dresses in clothing made from the finest of plant (i.e., “linen”) and animal (i.e., “purple,” which like “scarlet,” is a metonymy for expensive and high-quality wool) sources.

Verse 23, which features the husband, appears to be out of place in a poem focused solely on the valiant wife’s attributes. However, it is in keeping with the focus of the book, which explicitly addresses the young man, not the young woman. This does not mean that the book does not apply to women (see Invitation to Proverbs), but the book’s lessons focus on teaching wisdom to the young men because it was they who assumed leadership in the home and community. “The gate” is the area where the city’s elders and rulers gathered to determine the city’s business (i.e., City Hall in today’s parlance). “When he sits” is imagery for the husband providing authoritative counsel. “With the elders” means the husband is a member of the city’s governing body. In sum, this verse declares that, owing to the wife’s genius in managing the affairs of the home, her husband is empowered to serve the common good in the highest office.

Verse 24 complements verse 22 by noting two textile products that the wife makes to sell to the merchants. The pairing of verse 24 with verse 25 suggests that the products she sells to the merchants are of the same high quality as the ones she makes for herself.

According to verse 25, the valiant wife’s character is marked by “strength and dignity.” “Her clothing” is imagery for her character (cf. Job 29:14; Ps 104:1; Isa 59:17). In 20:29 “strength” characterized the energetic youth, and “dignity” characterized the aged wise. Thus, the valiant wife possesses the best characteristics that both youth and age have to offer, namely, energy and wisdom. It is no wonder, then, that she “laughs at” (i.e., has no fear of) what the future may hold. She is both materially and spiritually well prepared and so is free of anxiety and full of confidence.

Verses 26–27 add two more positive actions which the valiant wife performs for her household: teaching and guarding. Having submitted to the wise instruction of her parents, the valiant wife has developed into a wise woman herself and is now able to speak and teach wisdom to her household (cf. 1:8b; 6:20b; 31:1). She also watches diligently over all affairs of her home to ensure that problems are identified and dealt with swiftly and order is maintained. “Bread of idleness” is a metaphor for laziness.

III. Conclusion: Valiant Wife’s Praise (31:28–31)

The poem concludes appropriately by noting the praise that is heaped on the valiant wife. Those whom the valiant woman worked hard to support now pause to praise her.

A. Praise from Family (31:28–29)

Verse 28 focuses on the physical gestures by which the valiant wife’s family praises her. As she rose early to provide for them (v. 15), her children now rise (cf. Lev 19:32) and “call her blessed” (see comments on 3:13). Her husband also rises (implied) and “praises her.”

Verse 29 quotes the words with which her husband praises her. He heaps superlative praise upon her by declaring that of all the valiant (ḥayil) women, she is the most valiant.

B. Praise from All (31:30–31)

The poet now takes over and explains why the valiant wife deserves praise (v. 30) and where she should be praised (v. 31).

Verse 30. The valiant wife is to be praised because she possesses a godly-wise character which, according to the evaluative lens of wisdom, is better than physical beauty (cf. 11:22). Here “fears the LORD” is a metonymy of cause signifying a wise and righteous character. “Charm . . . beauty,” a hendiadys meaning “elegant beauty,” are “deceitful . . . vain (lit. “a breath”)” because physical beauty fades and vanishes with age. Godly character, however, if maintained by constant attention to wisdom (see 1:5; 19:27), grows stronger with age. The poet is not decrying physical beauty, since he affirms its place in 5:19, but is prioritizing the value of godly character over physical beauty.

Verse 31 assures disciples that whereas the valiant wife’s works were confined to the home, her praise will be voiced by all “in the gates” (i.e., in City Hall), the highest of public places.

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Clifford, Richard J. Proverbs. OTL. Louisville: Westminster/John Knox, 1999.

Fox, Michael V. Proverbs 1-9. AB. New York: Doubleday, 2000.

_____. Proverbs 10-31. New Haven, Ct.: Yale University Press, 2009.

Garrett, Duane A. Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs. NAC 14. Nashville: Broadman, 1993.

Kayatz, Christa B. Studien zu Proverbien 1-9: Eine form- und motivgeschichtliche Untersuchung unter Einbeziehung ägyptischen Vergleichsmaterials. WMANT 11; Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1966.

Liew, Sow-Phen. “Social and Literary Context of Proverbs 28-29.” Ph.D. diss. Westminster Theological             Seminary, 1991.

Lucas, Ernest C. Proverbs. THOTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015.

Malchow, Bruce V. “A Manual for Future Monarchs.” CBQ 47 (1985): 238–45.

Miller, R. Suzanna. , Genre and Openness in Proverbs 10:1-22:16. Atlanta: SBL Press, 2020.

Ploger, Otto. Sprüche Salomos (Proverbia). BKAT XVII/2-4. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1984.

Ross, Allen P. Proverbs. EBC. Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1991.

Schipper, Bernd U. Proverbs 1-15. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2019.

Thiselton, Anthony C. The First Epistle to the Corinthians, NIGTC. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2000.

Van Leeuwen, Raymond C. “The Book of Proverbs.” In The New Interpreter’s Bible: Old Testament Survey. Nashville: Abingdon, 2005.

Waltke, Bruce K. The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1-15. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2004.

_____. The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 15-31. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2005.

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Wilson, Lindsay. Proverbs. TOTC. Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity, 2017.

Wolters, Al. “Proverbs XXI 10-31 as Heroic Hymn.” VT 38 (1988): 446–57.

1. Although it is the son who is directly addressed in the book, we must assume that daughters were also taught its wisdom, since the book advocates listening to the wisdom of the mother (1:8; 6:20; 10:1; 15:20; 23:22; 29:15; 30:11). The only way in which the mother could become a wisdom teacher (31:1, 26) is if, when she was young, she too had been taught wisdom in her parents’ home.

2. E.g., the Instruction of Hardjedef is addressed to his son Au-ib-re; the Instruction of Khety to his son Merikare; and the Instruction of Amenemope to his unnamed youngest son.

3. All three verbs, “hear,” “add,” “gain,” are commands.

4. Since they are wise, we must assume they have paid attention to wisdom previously.

5. Some scholars consider these terms synonyms, not different types of wisdom. The poem of Habakkuk 2:6 is described using three of these terms, supporting this view.

6. See K. Kayatz, Proverbien 1-9, 107–17 for the ANE background of these metaphors.

7. For the exegetical argument supporting this view, see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 29–30.

8. Following Waltke, Proverbs, vol. 1, 197, n. 5.

9. The Heb. uses the plural form ḥākmôt for Wisdom, probably because it is an abstract noun or because the plural expresses intensity, fullness, perfection. In any case, all pronouns referring to Wisdom in this section are singular.

10. In a full acrostic, each verse will begin with the next letter of the alphabet (e.g., Prov 31:10–31).

11. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 84.

12. Whybray, Proverbs, 52. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 163, renders the meaning as: resourcefulness that enables one to deal with a crisis.

13. For a summary of the arguments concerning her identity, see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 54–57.

14. Waltke, Proverbs, vol. 1, 240: “The father is the mouthpiece of [the book’s] final editor.”

15. For the omission of “write them on the tablet of your heart,” see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 91, n. 32.

16. The meaning of the Hebrew word pĕnînîm (Qere) is uncertain. Possibly it means “corals” and is glossed dynamically as “jewelry” (ESV, NASB) and “rubies” (NIV, NET, NLT).

17. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 37–38.

18. So Waltke, Proverbs, Vol. 1, 276. Fox, Proverbs 1-9, 172, who surveys the extrabiblical wisdom literature on this matter, concludes that the father-son construction is generic, and while a father is speaking to his son, through him he is addressing all boys.

19. Lucas, Proverbs, 66.

20. BDB, 889, s.v. qānâ.

21. Waltke’s memorable coinage. See his Proverbs, vol. 1, 286.

22. In this commentary I use this word not in its clinical psychological sense, but in its general sense of someone who displays antisocial, violent, and selfish behavior.

23. Waltke, Proverbs, vol. 1, 297.

24. 5:7 addresses sons (pl.) but reverts to the singular “you” in the rest of the lesson (5:8–20). On the use of the plural address see 4:1.

25. C. A. Keller, TLOT, 1:268, s.v., brk.

26. 16:27–30 describes other wicked types by characteristics similar to those of the wicked troublemaker.

27. Others include: 30:15b–16; 18–19; 21–23; 29–31. Outside of Proverbs, numerical sayings can be found in Job (5:19–22); Amos (1–2); Sirach (23:16–17; 25:7–11; 26:5–6, 28; 50:25–26), and in other ancient Near Eastern wisdom literature.

28. So D. A. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs (NAC 14; Nashville: Broadman, 1993), 99–100.

29. The ESV’s “evil woman” is based on the MT and is possible. The alternate reading, “your neighbor’s wife” (NIV, REB), is based on a slight emendation of the MT from ʾēšet rāʿ to ʾēšet rē ̂ekā. The LXX rendering, “married woman,” follows the emended reading. The emendation is preferable since it harmonizes better with the parallel “foreign woman” (24b) and the clear references to another man’s wife in 6:26b and 29a.

30. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 254.

31. In Song 5:1 “bride” and “sister” are synonyms.

32. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 145.

33. Some commentators are troubled by how the father can discern the woman’s motives by mere observation of her clothing. While the Old Testament nowhere suggests that prostitutes wore special clothing, this ignores the powerful signaling effect that clothing has. The ancients, like moderns, understood that clothing signaled one’s class, social status, modesty, sexual availability, etc. The Italian philosopher Umberto Eco asserted, “I am speaking through my clothes.” See his “Social Life as a Sign System,” in D. Robey (ed.), Structuralism (Oxford: Clarendon, 1973), 59; quoted in Thiselton, The First Epistle to the Corinthians, 802. Thiselton also quotes Roland Barthes, Elements of Semiology (Eng. trans. London: Cape, 1967), 13–28, as another authority on the semiotic power of clothing.

34. So Garrett, Proverbs, 104.

35. So Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 271.

36. Verse 22b in the MT is unintelligible: “and like a shackle for the discipline of a fool” (see KJV, NASB). The ESV (also NIV, NLT) gloss is the best alternative so far.

37. Verse 11 is the only verse in which Wisdom speaks about herself in the third person. For this and other reasons (see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 151, n. 167), some commentators excise it as a gloss from 3:15. However, since all texts and versions retain it, and it makes sense in the context as an appropriate summation of Wisdom’s self-praise, it is best to include it.

38. Verse 16b involves a textual issue. The possible readings are “all the judges of the earth” and “all righteous judges.” The latter, probably due to dittography from 15b, is supported by the Targum. The former is supported by the LXX and is preferred because “judges” most often occurs with “earth,” not “righteousness.”

39. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 157.

40. On what follows see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 160–61.

41. For a full discussion of the debate that includes the interpretation of qānānî in the Arian controversy, see Waltke, Proverbs 1-15, 127–33 and 408–09.

42. Izak Cornelius / Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, NIDOTTE, s.v. qānâ.

43. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 161. The idea that wisdom is a hypostasis of God and is to be equated with Jesus Christ must be rejected on lexical and exegetical grounds. I view Wisdom as a personification of Solomon’s teaching and do not identify Wisdom with Jesus Christ. Wisdom, however, is a type of Jesus Christ. For the arguments affirming this, see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 59–61.

44. For a good summary of the debate, see Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 312–14.

45. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 167. So also Garrett, Proverbs, 115.

46. Adopted and adapted from Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 167, and Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 320.

47. In the Hebrew text of verset A, “instruction” is gapped but is implied by its synonymous parallel “learning” in verset B.

48. The word rendered “Holy One” is qĕdōšîm, a masculine, plural adjective, literally meaning “holy ones.” Its use as a divine title is rare (see also 30:3) and explicable as a plural of majesty.

49. Yet, as Garrett, Proverbs, 46, has noted, the very haphazardness of some collections of proverbs may have the didactic purpose of teaching that life is not always subject to human systematization: “The proverbs are presented in the seemingly haphazard way we encounter the issues with which they deal.”

50. See Garrett, Proverbs, 117.

51. On what follows see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 177–78.

52. Forms of the same Hebrew verb are used in Exod 14:28; 15:5, 10, to describe the waters “covering up” (i.e., overwhelming) the Egyptians to their destruction.

53. The ESV renders the verb matʿe as a reflexive verb and so translates the proverb as describing the consequences of rejecting wisdom for the rejector. But the verb is a causative, showing the consequences of one’s decisions for others.

54. Cited in Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 379.

55. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 523.

56. Garrett, Proverbs, 125.

57. So Whybray, Proverbs, 179.

58. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 196.

59. See ibid., 196.

60. Wilson, Proverbs, 158.

61. The MT reads, “and one who takes lives is wise,” but the context demands the opposite meaning: “. . . saves lives . . .” This is also the case at 14:33.

62. So Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 419.

63. In this commentary we translate ʾēšet-ḥayil as “valiant wife.”

64. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 424.

65. Ross, Proverbs, 973.

66. Cf. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 433.

67. The MT of verse 26a is difficult. Here we follow the ESV margin; see also NIV, NET.

68. For the reading of ʾal-māwet as “immortality,” see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 213–14.

69. See ibid., 216.

70. In the MT, verset A lacks a verb. “Listen to” is suggested based on its antithetic parallel in verset B: “does not listen” (lōʾ-šāmaʿ).

71. The Old Testament prophet modeled him/herself after the royal messenger.

72. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 224.

73. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 458.

74. The ESV’s “wisest of women” translates the difficult Hebrew, “wise woman of woman,” as a superlative.

75. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 572.

76. Garrett, Proverbs, 142.

77. The Heb. participle “fear” refers to the “fear of the LORD” (so NIV).

78. Bridges, Proverbs, 183.

79. Schipper, Proverbs, 479.

80. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 481.

81. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 237.

82. Schipper, Proverbs 1-15, 505.

83. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 249.

84. So Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 614.

85. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 621.

86. In the Hebrew text, verses 27–29 each begin with ʾîš (man).

87. This warning is particularly applicable to today’s social media landscape that includes Twitter, Tik-Tok, Facebook, and other media. The content posted on these platforms often includes trolling, gossip, and vituperous speech that demoralizes the listeners spiritually.

88. So Wilson, Proverbs, 206.

89. Lucas, Proverbs, 127.

90. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 270.

91. ESV and NIV follow many commentators who emend the MT’s rāšāʿ (“wicked person”) to rešāʿ (“wickedness”), presumably to better parallel “dishonor.” However, emendation is unnecessary, as the MT makes sense.

92. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 278.

93. Suzanna R. Miller, Genre and Openness in Proverbs 10:1-22:16, 139.

94. So Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 641.

95. The Hebrew of the third verset is difficult and not certain. Here we follow the NIV translation.

96. The phrase refers to a 1978 documentary film in which troubled teens were exposed to hardened criminals in jail. The latter graphically described their crimes and resulting punishments. The teens were followed up, and it was discovered that only one had been convicted of a felony. Since then, “Scared Straight” has become a program instituted in many states. See here for more information: https://universalcrisisintervention.com/interventions/scared-straight/.

97. Plöger, Sprüche, 227.

98. See here: https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/press-releases/religious-upbringing-adult-health/; here: https://www.touchstonemag.com/archives/article.php?id=16-05-024-v; and here: https://www.psychologytoday.com/us/blog/the-time-cure/201808/the-fatherless-generation.

99. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 298.

100. So Van Leeuwen, “Proverbs,” in NIB 5, 188.

101. See Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 312, n. 150.

102. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 314.

103. So Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 185.

104. Steiert, Die Weisheit Israels: Ein Fremdkorper im Alten Testament? Quoted by Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 693.

105. See n. 122.

106. The LXX adds another proverb to verse 8: “God blesses a cheerful and liberal person; [a person] shall fully receive the folly of his works.” The LXX forms this proverb by combining variants of verse 9a with 8b. Paul quotes the first part of this LXX addition in 2Cor 9:7.

107. See Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 757–60, for a helpful comparison of citations from Amenemope that were reworked and added to 22:17–23:11.

108. Clifford, Proverbs, 206.

109. Adapted from Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 327.

110. Garrett, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, 195.

111. AEL, 2:142.

112. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 736.

113. The MT of 27a has zônâ (“prostitute), and 27b has nokr̂iyâ (“foreign woman,” i.e., “adulteress”). Many scholars emend the MT’s zônâ to zārâ since in Proverbs zārâ is always paired with nokr̂iyâ, never with zônâ (see 2:16; 5:10, 20; 7:5; 20:16; 27:13).

114. The word for “sayings” does not occur in the MT. Most translations add it since it is implied from 22:17.

115. The exposition relies heavily on Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 354.

116. For the argument supporting this translation see Waltke, Proverbs 15-31, 307–08, n. 53.

117. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 369.

118. Adapted from Van Leeuwen, “Proverbs,” in NIB 5, 224.

119. Garrett, Proverbs, 212.

120. Here following the LXX and not the MT, which has dōleqîm (“burning”). See NET Bible footnote bf.

121. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 379.

122. Two negative comparisons in verset A are followed by what is worse in verset B.

123. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 805.

124. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 813.

125. See Garrett, Proverbs, 221.

126. Liew, 105ff. 29:7 also features the “righteous” and the “wicked” but is not part of the pattern because it is the only verse in which both key words are in the singular and is not connected by content to the other six. See Malchow, 240.

127. Bruce Malchow, “A Manual for Future Monarchs,” 245.

128. Malchow, “A Manual for Future Monarchs,” 241.

129. The word for “bribe” is not used, but the parallel implies that the showing of partiality was due to receiving a gift.

130. Proverbs featuring the mother usually include the father as a stereotypical pair (e.g., 1:8; 4:3; 6:20; 10:1; 15:20; 19:26; 20:20; 23:22, 25; 28:24; 30:11, 17). The division of the pair between 29:1 and 15, is, therefore, a deliberate split to form an inclusio to demarcate the unit.

131. For a similar example where the text demands an opposite reading, see 11:30 and note 81; see also 14:33.

132. For glossing bǝʾāḥôr with “finally” see Waltke, Proverbs 15-31, 439.

133. The commentary on ch. 30 draws heavily on Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 411–25.

134. For the significance of numerical sayings, see above on 6:16–19.

135. For the defense of the translation of verse 1, see Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 411–12.

136. In the Bible, the number seven symbolizes divine perfection.

137. The numerical line in saying 3 is not at the beginning of verse 15 (i.e., verset A), but in verset B.

138. Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 421.

139. So Waltke, Proverbs 15-31, 459–60.

140. In Jer 3:13b dǝrāḵayiḵ (lit. “your [pl.] ways”) is a euphemism for sexual intercourse. Similarly, in Prov 31:3 ḏǝrāḵêḵā (lit. “your [sg.] ways”) is also a euphemism for sexual vigor.

141. For glossing Heb. mah with “listen,” see Waltke, Proverbs 15-31, 503–04, n. 14.

142. See n. 142 above.

143. Adopted with adaptation from Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 430.

144. Al Wolters, “Proverbs XXI 10-31 as Heroic Hymn,” VT 38 (1988), 446–57.

145. Fox, Proverbs 10-31, 912. Fox lists some examples that confirm his assertion.

146. Judg 20:36 appears to be the only other occurrence of “bāṭaḥ” used positively for trusting in human beings.

147. Adopted with adaptations from Waltke and De Silva, Proverbs, 435.

148. Adopted with adaptations from Garrett, Proverbs, 248.

149. Cf. Garrett, Proverbs, 248

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